Hepacivirus

Hepacivirus is a genus of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses in the family Flaviviridae.[3] The hepatitis C virus (HCV), belonging to the species Hepacivirus C, has humans as its only known natural host, and is associated with hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma.[3][4]

Hepacivirus
Electron micrograph of Hepacivirus C purified from cell culture. Scale bar = 50 nanometres
Virus classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Phylum: incertae sedis
Family: Flaviviridae
Genus: Hepacivirus
Type species
Hepacivirus C
Species
  • Hepacivirus A
  • Hepacivirus B
  • Hepacivirus C
  • Hepacivirus D
  • Hepacivirus E
  • Hepacivirus F
  • Hepacivirus G
  • Hepacivirus H
  • Hepacivirus I
  • Hepacivirus J
  • Hepacivirus K
  • Hepacivirus L
  • Hepacivirus M
  • Hepacivirus N
Synonyms
  • Hepatitis C-like viruses[1]
  • Hepatitis virus C group[2]

Taxonomy

The viruses belonging to this genus have been classified into 14 species - Hepacivirus A-N.[5][3]

  • The species Hepacivirus A includes the virus canine hepacivirus/non-primate hepacivirus/equine hepacivirus
  • The species Hepacivirus B includes the virus GBV-B
  • The species Hepacivirus C includes the virus Hepatitis C virus (previously included in the species Hepatitis C virus)
  • The species Hepacivirus D includes the virus Guereza hepacivirus
  • The species Hepacivirus E includes the virus rodent hepacivirus-339
  • The species Hepacivirus F includes the virus rodent hepacivirus-NLR07-oct70
  • The species Hepacivirus G includes the virus Norway rat hepacivirus 1
  • The species Hepacivirus H includes the virus Norway rat hepacivirus 2
  • The species Hepacivirus I includes the virus rodent hepacivirus-SAR-3/RSA/2008
  • The species Hepacivirus J includes the virus rodent hepacivirus-RMU10-3382/GER/2010
  • The species Hepacivirus K includes the virus bat hepacivirus-PDB-829
  • The species Hepacivirus L includes the virus bat hepacivirus-PDB-112
  • The species Hepacivirus M includes the virus bat hepacivirus-PDB-491.1
  • The species Hepacivirus N includes the virus bovine hepacivirus
  • The species Hepacivirus P infects the long-tailed ground squirrel (Spermophilus undulatus)[6]

A new virus has been isolated from the bamboo rat (Rhizomys pruinosus) while belonging to this genus does not appear to belong to any previously described species.[7]

Another unclassified virus in this taxon is duck hepacivirus-like virus.[8]

A virus in this genus has been isolated from bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) [9]

Structure

Viruses in the genus Hepacivirus are enveloped, with spherical geometries. The diameter is around 50 nm. Genomes are linear and non-segmented, around 10kb in length.[3][4]

GenusStructureSymmetryCapsidGenomic arrangementGenomic segmentation
HepacivirusIcosahedral-likePseudo T=3EnvelopedLinearMonopartite

Life cycle

Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral envelope protein E to host receptors, which mediates clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded rna virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by viral initiation. Human serve as the natural host. Transmission routes are sexual, blood, and contact.[3][4]

GenusHost detailsTissue tropismEntry detailsRelease detailsReplication siteAssembly siteTransmission
HepacivirusHumansEpithelium: skin; epithelium: kidney; epithelium: intestine; epithelium: testesClathrin-mediated endocytosisSecretionCytoplasmCytoplasmSex; blood

History

Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is the causative agent of hepatitis C in humans, and a member of the species Hepacivirus C, was discovered in 1989.[10] Seven genotypes (1-7) and eighty six subtypes (1a, 1b etc.) of hepatitis C virus have been named.[11]

GBV-B virus (also known as GB virus B) discovered in 1995 is capable of infecting New World monkeys, in particular tamarins. Like HCV it is transmitted by the blood-borne route and similar to HCV it is associated with the viral hepatitis. However GBV-B has never been identified in wild animals and its natural host is not known.[10]

Additional Information

Additional hepaciviruses have been described from bats, rodents including bank voles, horses and dogs.[12][13][14]

Cattle also appear to be a host for viruses belonging to the species Hepacivirus N.[15][16]

Rodent hepacivirus is found in the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus).[10]

A virus related to hepaciviruses has been isolated from the graceful catshark (Proscyllium habereri).[17]

There are at least two subtypes of equine hepacivirus.[18]

The viruses most closely related to Hepacivirus C are the equine hepaciviruses belonging to the species Hepacivirus A .[19]

Hepacivirus A infecting horses has also been found in donkeys.[20]

References
  1. Pringle, C. R. (1996). "Virus Taxonomy 1996 - A Bulletin from the Xth International Congress of Virology in Jerusalem" (PDF). Archives of Virology. 141 (11): 2251–6. doi:10.1007/BF01718231. ISSN 1432-8798. OCLC 76349762. PMID 8992952. Retrieved 13 March 2019. To name the genus comprising the hepatitis C-like viruses as the genus Hepacivirus.
  2. 1ICTV 6th Report Murphy, F. A., Fauquet, C. M., Bishop, D. H. L., Ghabrial, S. A., Jarvis, A. W. Martelli, G. P. Mayo, M. A. & Summers, M. D.(eds)(1995). Virus Taxonomy. Sixthreport of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Archives of Virology Supplement 10, p. 424 https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv/proposals/ICTV%206th%20Report.pdf
  3. "Flaviviridae". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
  4. "Viral Zone". ExPASy. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
  5. Smith, Donald B; Becher, Paul; Bukh, Jens; Gould, Ernest A; Meyers, Gregor; Monath, Thomas; Muerhoff, A. Scott; Pletnev, Alexander; Rico-Hesse, Rebecca; Stapleton, Jack T; Simmonds, Peter (2016). "Proposed update to the taxonomy of the genera Hepacivirus and Pegivirus within the Flaviviridae family". Journal of General Virology. 97 (11): 2894–2907. doi:10.1099/jgv.0.000612. PMC 5770844. PMID 27692039.
  6. Li LL, Liu MM, Shen S, Zhang YJ, Xu YL, Deng HY, Deng F, Duan ZJ (2019) Detection and characterization of a novel hepacivirus in long-tailed ground squirrels (Spermophilus undulatus) in China. Arch Virol
  7. Van Nguyen, Dung; Van Nguyen, Cuong; Bonsall, David; Ngo, Tue; Carrique-Mas, Juan; Pham, Anh; Bryant, Juliet; Thwaites, Guy; Baker, Stephen; Woolhouse, Mark; Simmonds, Peter (2018). "Detection and Characterization of Homologues of Human Hepatitis Viruses and Pegiviruses in Rodents and Bats in Vietnam". Viruses. 10 (3): 102. doi:10.3390/v10030102. PMC 5869495. PMID 29495551.
  8. Chu L, Jin M, Feng C, Wang X, Zhang D (2019) A highly divergent hepacivirus-like flavivirus in domestic ducks. J Gen Virol
  9. Goldberg TL, Sibley SD, Pinkerton ME, Dunn CD, Long LJ, White LC, Strom SM (2019) Multidecade mortality and a homolog of Hepatitis C Virus in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), the national bird of the USA. Sci Rep 9(1):14953
  10. Stapleton, J. T; Foung, S; Muerhoff, A. S; Bukh, J; Simmonds, P (2010). "The GB viruses: A review and proposed classification of GBV-A, GBV-C (HGV), and GBV-D in genus Pegivirus within the family Flaviviridae". Journal of General Virology. 92 (2): 233–46. doi:10.1099/vir.0.027490-0. PMC 3081076. PMID 21084497.
  11. "HCV Classification". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).
  12. Kapoor, A; Simmonds, P; Scheel, T. K. H; Hjelle, B; Cullen, J. M; Burbelo, P. D; Chauhan, L. V; Duraisamy, R; Sanchez Leon, M; Jain, K; Vandegrift, K. J; Calisher, C. H; Rice, C. M; Lipkin, W. I (2013). "Identification of Rodent Homologs of Hepatitis C Virus and Pegiviruses". mBio. 4 (2): e00216–13. doi:10.1128/mBio.00216-13. PMC 3622934. PMID 23572554.
  13. Drexler, Jan Felix; Corman, Victor Max; Müller, Marcel Alexander; Lukashev, Alexander N; Gmyl, Anatoly; Coutard, Bruno; Adam, Alexander; Ritz, Daniel; Leijten, Lonneke M; Van Riel, Debby; Kallies, Rene; Klose, Stefan M; Gloza-Rausch, Florian; Binger, Tabea; Annan, Augustina; Adu-Sarkodie, Yaw; Oppong, Samuel; Bourgarel, Mathieu; Rupp, Daniel; Hoffmann, Bernd; Schlegel, Mathias; Kümmerer, Beate M; Krüger, Detlev H; Schmidt-Chanasit, Jonas; Setién, Alvaro Aguilar; Cottontail, Veronika M; Hemachudha, Thiravat; Wacharapluesadee, Supaporn; Osterrieder, Klaus; et al. (2013). "Evidence for Novel Hepaciviruses in Rodents". PLoS Pathogens. 9 (6): e1003438. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003438. PMC 3688547. PMID 23818848.
  14. Lauck, M; Sibley, S. D; Lara, J; Purdy, M. A; Khudyakov, Y; Hyeroba, D; Tumukunde, A; Weny, G; Switzer, W. M; Chapman, C. A; Hughes, A. L; Friedrich, T. C; O'Connor, D. H; Goldberg, T. L (2013). "A Novel Hepacivirus with an Unusually Long and Intrinsically Disordered NS5A Protein in a Wild Old World Primate". Journal of Virology. 87 (16): 8971–81. doi:10.1128/JVI.00888-13. PMC 3754081. PMID 23740998.
  15. Corman, Victor Max; Grundhoff, Adam; Baechlein, Christine; Fischer, Nicole; Gmyl, Anatoly; Wollny, Robert; Dei, Dickson; Ritz, Daniel; Binger, Tabea; Adankwah, Ernest; Marfo, Kwadwo Sarfo; Annison, Lawrence; Annan, Augustina; Adu-Sarkodie, Yaw; Oppong, Samuel; Becher, Paul; Drosten, Christian; Drexler, Jan Felix (2015). "Highly Divergent Hepaciviruses from African Cattle". Journal of Virology. 89 (11): 5876–82. doi:10.1128/JVI.00393-15. PMC 4442428. PMID 25787289.
  16. Baechlein, Christine; Fischer, Nicole; Grundhoff, Adam; Alawi, Malik; Indenbirken, Daniela; Postel, Alexander; Baron, Anna Lena; Offinger, Jennifer; Becker, Kathrin; Beineke, Andreas; Rehage, Juergen; Becher, Paul (2015). "Identification of a Novel Hepacivirus in Domestic Cattle from Germany". Journal of Virology. 89 (14): 7007–15. doi:10.1128/JVI.00534-15. PMC 4473572. PMID 25926652.
  17. Shi, Mang; Lin, Xian-Dan; Vasilakis, Nikos; Tian, Jun-Hua; Li, Ci-Xiu; Chen, Liang-Jun; Eastwood, Gillian; Diao, Xiu-Nian; Chen, Ming-Hui; Chen, Xiao; Qin, Xin-Cheng; Widen, Steven G; Wood, Thomas G; Tesh, Robert B; Xu, Jianguo; Holmes, Edward C; Zhang, Yong-Zhen (2016). "Divergent Viruses Discovered in Arthropods and Vertebrates Revise the Evolutionary History of the Flaviviridae and Related Viruses". Journal of Virology. 90 (2): 659–69. doi:10.1128/JVI.02036-15. PMC 4702705. PMID 26491167.
  18. Pronost, S; Hue, E; Fortier, C; Foursin, M; Fortier, G; Desbrosse, F; Rey, F. A; Pitel, P.-H; Richard, E; Saunier, B (2017). "Prevalence of Equine Hepacivirus Infections in France and Evidence for Two Viral Subtypes Circulating Worldwide". Transboundary and Emerging Diseases. 64 (6): 1884–1897. doi:10.1111/tbed.12587. PMID 27882682.
  19. Thézé, Julien; Lowes, Sophia; Parker, Joe; Pybus, Oliver G (2015). "Evolutionary and Phylogenetic Analysis of the Hepaciviruses and Pegiviruses". Genome Biology and Evolution. 7 (11): 2996–3008. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv202. PMC 5635594. PMID 26494702.
  20. Walter S, Rasche A, Moreira-Soto A, Pfaender S, Bletsa M, Corman VM, Aguilar-Setien A, García-Lacy F, Hans A, Todt D, Schuler G, Shnaiderman-Torban A, Steinman A, Roncoroni C, Veneziano V, Rusenova N12, Sandev N12, Rusenov A, Zapryanova D, García-Bocanegra I, Jores J, Carluccio A, Veronesi MC, Cavalleri JMV, Drosten C, Lemey P, Steinmann E, Drexler JF (2016) Differential infection patterns and recent evolutionary origins of Equine Hepaciviruses in donkeys. J Virol 91(1)
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