Skip directly to search Skip directly to A to Z list Skip directly to navigation Skip directly to page options Skip directly to site content

US Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2016

References

  1. Finer LB, Zolna MR. Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006. Contraception 2011;84:478–85. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2011. 07. 013 PubMed
  2. Gipson JD, Koenig MA, Hindin MJ. The effects of unintended pregnancy on infant, child, and parental health: a review of the literature. Stud Fam Plann 2008;39:18–38. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1728-4465. 2008. 00148. x PubMed
  3.  Sonfield A, Kost K. Public costs from unintended pregnancies and the role of public insurance programs in paying for pregnancy-related care: national and state estimates for 2010. New York, NY: The Guttmacher Institute; 2015.
  4. Finer LB, Henshaw SK. Disparities in rates of unintended pregnancy in the United States, 1994 and 2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2006;38:90–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1363/3809006 PubMed
  5.  CDC. U.S. medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep (No. RR-X);2016.
  6.  CDC. U.S. selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013;62(No. RR-05).
  7. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol 2009;62:e1–34. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jclinepi. 2009. 06. 006 PubMed
  8.  Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG; PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ 2009;339:b2535.
  9. Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, et al; Methods Work Group, Third US Preventive Services Task Force. Current methods of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process. Am J Prev Med 2001;20(Suppl):21–35. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6 PubMed
  10.  Folger S. Guidance for providers on contraceptive use. Identification of research gaps. 2016. In press.
  11.  Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Flanagan RG, Rinehart W, Gaffield ML, Peterson HB. Keeping up with evidence a new system for WHO’s evidence-based family planning guidance. Am J Prev Med 2005;28:483–90. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. amepre. 2005. 02. 008 PubMed
  12.  Gavin L, Moskosky S, Carter M, et al. Providing quality family planning services: Recommendations of CDC and the U.S. Office of Population Affairs. MMWR Recomm Rep 2014;63(No. RR-04).  PubMed
  13.  World Health Organization. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use. 2nd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2004.
  14.  Trussell J. Contraceptive failure in the United States. Contraception 2011;83:397–404. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2011. 01. 021 PubMed
  15.  Workowski KA, Bolan GA. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep 2015;64(No. RR-3). PubMed
  16.  Stanback J, Nakintu N, Qureshi Z, Nasution M. Does assessment of signs and symptoms add to the predictive value of an algorithm to rule out pregnancy? J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2006;32:27–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1783/147118906775275370 PubMed
  17.  Stanback J, Nanda K, Ramirez Y, Rountree W, Cameron SB. Validation of a job aid to rule out pregnancy among family planning clients in Nicaragua. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2008;23:116–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1590/S1020-49892008000200007 PubMed
  18.  Stanback J, Qureshi Z, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Gonzalez B, Nutley T. Checklist for ruling out pregnancy among family-planning clients in primary care. Lancet 1999;354:566. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(99)01578-0 PubMed
  19.  Torpey K, Mwenda L, Kabaso M, et al. Excluding pregnancy among women initiating antiretroviral therapy: efficacy of a family planning job aid. BMC Public Health 2010;10:249. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1186/1471-2458-10-249 PubMed
  20.  Cole LA, Ladner DG, Byrn FW. The normal variabilities of the menstrual cycle. Fertil Steril 2009;91:522–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. fertnstert. 2007. 11. 073 PubMed
  21.  Wilcox AJ, Dunson D, Baird DD. The timing of the “fertile window” in the menstrual cycle: day specific estimates from a prospective study. BMJ 2000;321:1259–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1136/bmj. 321. 7271. 1259 PubMed
  22.  Donnet ML, Howie PW, Marnie M, Cooper W, Lewis M. Return of ovarian function following spontaneous abortion. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1990;33:13–20. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1365-2265. 1990. tb00460. x PubMed
  23.  Lähteenmäki P. Postabortal contraception. Ann Med 1993;25:185–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3109/07853899309164166 PubMed
  24.  Stoddard A, Eisenberg DL. Controversies in family planning: timing of ovulation after abortion and the conundrum of postabortion intrauterine device insertion. Contraception 2011;84:119–21. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2010. 12. 010 PubMed
  25.  Jackson E, Glasier A. Return of ovulation and menses in postpartum nonlactating women: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:657–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e31820ce18c PubMed
  26.  Kennedy KI, Rivera R, McNeilly AS. Consensus statement on the use of breastfeeding as a family planning method. Contraception 1989;39:477–96. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(89)90103-0 PubMed
  27.  Labbok MH, Perez A, Valdes V, et al. The lactational amenorrhea method (LAM): a postpartum introductory family planning method with policy and program implications. Adv Contracept 1994;10:93–109. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1007/BF01978103 PubMed
  28.  US Food and Drug Administration. 510(k) premarket notification. Silver Spring, MD; 2015. https://www. accessdata. fda. gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpmn/pmn. cfm
  29.  Cervinski MA, Gronowski AM. Reproductive-endocrine point-of-care testing: current status and limitations. Clin Chem Lab Med 2010;48:935–42. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1515/CCLM. 2010. 183 PubMed
  30.  Cole LA. Human chorionic gonadotropin tests. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2009;9:721–47. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1586/erm. 09. 51 PubMed
  31.  Eichner SF, Timpe EM. Urinary-based ovulation and pregnancy: point-of-care testing. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38:325–31. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1345/aph. 1D210 PubMed
  32.  Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Dunson D, McChesney R, Weinberg CR. Natural limits of pregnancy testing in relation to the expected menstrual period. JAMA 2001;286:1759–61. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1001/jama. 286. 14. 1759 PubMed
  33.  Korhonen J, Alfthan H, Ylöstalo P, Veldhuis J, Stenman UH. Disappearance of human chorionic gonadotropin and its alpha- and beta-subunits after term pregnancy. Clin Chem 1997;43:2155–63.  PubMed
  34.  Reyes FI, Winter JS, Faiman C. Postpartum disappearance of chorionic gonadotropin from the maternal and neonatal circulations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:486–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0002-9378(85)90458-2 PubMed
  35.  Steier JA, Bergsjø P, Myking OL. Human chorionic gonadotropin in maternal plasma after induced abortion, spontaneous abortion, and removed ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1984;64:391–4.  PubMed
  36.  Bracken MB. Oral contraception and congenital malformations in offspring: a review and meta-analysis of the prospective studies. Obstet Gynecol 1990;76:552–7.  PubMed
  37.  Gray RH, Pardthaisong T. In utero exposure to steroid contraceptives and survival during infancy. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:804–11.  PubMed
  38.  Pardthaisong T, Gray RH. In utero exposure to steroid contraceptives and outcome of pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:795–803.  PubMed
  39.  Jaffe B, Harlap S, Baras M, et al. Long-term effects of MPA on human progeny: intellectual development. Contraception 1988;37:607–19. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(88)90007-8 PubMed
  40.  Pardthaisong T, Yenchit C, Gray R. The long-term growth and development of children exposed to Depo-Provera during pregnancy or lactation. Contraception 1992;45:313–24. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(92)90053-V PubMed
  41.  Brahmi D, Steenland MW, Renner RM, Gaffield ME, Curtis KM. Pregnancy outcomes with an IUD in situ: a systematic review. Contraception 2012;85:131–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2011. 06. 010 PubMed
  42.  Tepper NK, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Use of a checklist to rule out pregnancy: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:661–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 007 PubMed
  43.  Whiteman MK, Tyler CP, Folger SG, Gaffield ME, Curtis KM. When can a woman have an intrauterine device inserted? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:666–73. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 015 PubMed
  44.  Teva Women’s Health Inc. ParaGard® T 380a intrauterine copper contraceptive [Prescribing information]. Sellersville, PA; 2013. http://paragard. com/Pdf/ParaGard-PI. pdf
  45.  Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc. Mirena (levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system) [Prescribing information]. Whippany, NJ; 2014. http://labeling.bayerhealthcare.com/html/products/pi/Mirena_PI. pdf
  46.  Jatlaoui T, Simmons K, Curtis KM. The safety of intrauterine contraception among women at increased risk for sexually transmitted infections: A systematic review. Contraception 2016. In press.
  47.  Avonts D, Sercu M, Heyerick P, Vandermeeren I, Meheus A, Piot P. Incidence of uncomplicated genital infections in women using oral contraception or an intrauterine device: a prospective study. Sex Transm Dis 1990;17:23–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/00007435-199017010-00006 PubMed
  48.  Birgisson NE, Zhao Q, Secura GM, Madden T, Peipert JF. Positive testing for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease in IUD users. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2015;24:354–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1089/jwh. 2015. 5190 PubMed
  49.  Campbell SJ, Cropsey KL, Matthews CA. Intrauterine device use in a high-risk population: experience from an urban university clinic. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197: 193.e1–6; discussion 193.e6–7. Article is availabe at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Intrauterine+device+use+in+a+high-risk+population%3A+experience+from+an+urban+university+clinic AND http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002937807005492
  50.  Cropsey KL, Matthews C, Campbel S, Ivey S, Adawadkar S. Long-term, reversible contraception use among high-risk women treated in a university-based gynecology clinic: comparison between IUD and depo-provera. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010;19:349–53. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1089/jwh. 2009. 1518 PubMed
  51.  Farley TMM, Rosenberg MJ, Rowe PJ, Chen JH, Meirik O. Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective. Lancet 1992;339:785–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0140-6736(92)91904-M PubMed
  52.  Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Antibiotic prophylaxis for intrauterine contraceptive device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001; (2):CD001327.  PubMed
  53.  LeFevre ML; U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2014;161:902–10. http://dx. doi. org/10. 7326/M14-1981 PubMed
  54.  Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Peterson HB. Does insertion and use of an intrauterine device increase the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease among women with sexually transmitted infection? A systematic review. Contraception 2006;73:145–53. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 08. 007 PubMed
  55.  Morrison CS, Turner AN, Jones LB. Highly effective contraception and acquisition of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2009;23:263–84. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. bpobgyn. 2008. 11. 004 PubMed
  56.  Sufrin CB, Postlethwaite D, Armstrong MA, Merchant M, Wendt JM, Steinauer JE. Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis screening at intrauterine device insertion and pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:1314–21.  PubMed
  57.  Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Laboratory screening prior to initiating contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:645–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 009 PubMed
  58.  Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Hemoglobin measurement prior to initiating copper intrauterine devices: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:639–44. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 008 PubMed
  59.  Rivera R, Almonte H, Arreola M, et al. The effects of three different regimens of oral contraceptives and three different intrauterine devices on the levels of hemoglobin, serum iron and iron binding capacity in anemic women. Contraception 1983;27:311–27. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(83)90009-4 PubMed
  60.  Ursin G, Ross RK, Sullivan-Halley J, Hanisch R, Henderson B, Bernstein L. Use of oral contraceptives and risk of breast cancer in young women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1998;50:175–84. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1023/A:1006037823178 PubMed
  61.  Hassan EO, el-Husseini M, el-Nahal N. The effect of 1-year use of the CuT 380A and oral contraceptive pills on hemoglobin and ferritin levels. Contraception 1999;60:101–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(99)00065-7 PubMed
  62.  Calzolari E, Guglielmo R, Viola F, Migliore L. Hematological parameters and iron therapy in women with IUD’s. Experimental study [Italian]. Minerva Ginecol 1981;33:355–62.  PubMed
  63.  Andersson K, Odlind V, Rybo G. Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper-releasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial. Contraception 1994;49:56–72. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(94)90109-0 PubMed
  64.  Andrade AT, Pizarro E, Shaw STJ Jr, Souza JP, Belsey EM, Rowe PJ; World Health Organization. Consequences of uterine blood loss caused by various intrauterine contraceptive devices in South American women. Contraception 1988;38:1–18. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(88)90091-1 PubMed
  65.  Blum M, Ariel J, Zacharowitch D. Ferritin, a faithful reflection of iron deficiency in IUD wearers with mild vaginal spotting. Adv Contracept 1991;7:39–42. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1007/BF01850717 PubMed
  66.  El-sheikha Z, Hamza A, Mahmoud M. Menstrual blood loss of TCu-380 A and TCu-200 B IUDs. Popul Sci 1990;July:55–62.  PubMed
  67.  Gallegost AJ, Aznar R, Merino G, Guizer E. Intrauterine devices and menstrual blood loss. A comparative study of eight devices during the first six months of use. Contraception 1978;17:153–61. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(78)90071-9 PubMed
  68.  Gao J, Zeng S, Sun BL, et al. Menstrual blood loss, haemoglobin and ferritin concentration of Beijing women wearing steel ring, VCu 200, and TCu 220c IUDs. Contraception 1986;34:559–71. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(86)80012-9 PubMed
  69.  Goh TH, Hariharan M. Effect of laparoscopic sterilization and insertion of Multiload Cu 250 and Progestasert IUDs on serum ferritin levels. Contraception 1983;28:329–36. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(83)90034-3 PubMed
  70.  Goh TH, Hariharan M, Tan CH. A longitudinal study of serum iron indices and haemoglobin concentration following copper-IUD insertion. Contraception 1980;22:389–95. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(80)90024-4 PubMed
  71.  Guillebaud J, Bonnar J, Morehead J, Matthews A. Menstrual blood-loss with intrauterine devices. Lancet 1976;1:387–90. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(76)90216-6 PubMed
  72.  Haugan T, Skjeldestad FE, Halvorsen LE, Kahn H. A randomized trial on the clinical performance of Nova T380 and Gyne T380 Slimline copper IUDs. Contraception 2007;75:171–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 09. 005 PubMed
  73.  Kivijärvi A, Timonen H, Rajamäki A, Grönroos M. Iron deficiency in women using modern copper intrauterine devices. Obstet Gynecol 1986;67:95–8.  PubMed
  74.  Larsson B, Hamberger L, Rybo G. Influence of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices (Cu-7-IUD) on the menstrual blood-loss. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1975;54:315–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3109/00016347509156760 PubMed
  75.  Larsson G, Milsom I, Jonasson K, Lindstedt G, Rybo G. The long-term effects of copper surface area on menstrual blood loss and iron status in women fitted with an IUD. Contraception 1993;48:471–80. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(93)90136-U PubMed
  76.  Malmqvist R, Petersohn L, Bengtsson LP. Menstrual bleeding with copper-covered intrauterine contraceptive devices. Contraception 1974;9:627–33. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(74)90048-1 PubMed
  77.  Milsom I, Rybo G, Lindstedt G. The influence of copper surface area on menstrual blood loss and iron status in women fitted with an IUD. Contraception 1990;41:271–81. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(90)90068-7 PubMed
  78.  Piedras J, Córdova MS, Pérez-Toral MC, Lince E, Garza-Flores J. Predictive value of serum ferritin in anemia development after insertion of T Cu 220 intrauterine device. Contraception 1983;27:289–97. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(83)90007-0 PubMed
  79.  Sivin I, Alvarez F, Diaz J, et al. Intrauterine contraception with copper and with levonorgestrel: a randomized study of the TCu 380Ag and levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day devices. Contraception 1984;30:443–56. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(84)90036-2 PubMed
  80.  Sivin I, Stern J, Diaz J, et al. Two years of intrauterine contraception with levonorgestrel and with copper: a randomized comparison of the TCu 380Ag and levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day devices. Contraception 1987;35:245–55. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(87)90026-6 PubMed
  81.  Tchai BS, Kim SW, Han JH, Im MW. Menstrual blood loss, iron nutriture, and the effects of Alza-T IPCS 52, T-Cu 220C and Lippes Loop D in Korean women. Seoul J Med 1987;28:51–9.  PubMed
  82.  Wright EA, Kapu MM, Isichei UP. Zinc depletion and menorrhagia in Nigerians using copper T-200 intrauterine device. Trace Elem Med 1989;6:147–9.  PubMed
  83.  Milsom I, Andersson K, Jonasson K, Lindstedt G, Rybo G. The influence of the Gyne-T 380S IUD on menstrual blood loss and iron status. Contraception 1995;52:175–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(95)00163-5 PubMed
  84.  CDC. Safe motherhood at a glance: Hyattsville, MD; CDC; 2015.
  85.  Cox S, Dietz P, Bowman B, Posner S. Prevalence of chronic conditions among women of reproductive age. 3rd National Summit on Preconception Health and Health Care; Tampa, FL. 2011.
  86.  Berenson AB, Rahman M, Wilkinson G. Effect of injectable and oral contraceptives on serum lipids. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:786–94. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181b76bea PubMed
  87.  Dilbaz B, Ozdegirmenci O, Caliskan E, Dilbaz S, Haberal A. Effect of etonogestrel implant on serum lipids, liver function tests and hemoglobin levels. Contraception 2010;81:510–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2010. 01. 014 PubMed
  88.  Nelson AL, Cwiak C. Combined oral contraceptives. In: Hatcher RA, Trussel J, Nelson A, Cates W Jr, Kowal D, Policar M, editors. Contraceptive technology. 20th ed. New York, NY: Ardent Media; 2011:249–342.
  89. Dragoman M, Curtis KM, Gaffield ME. Combined hormonal contraceptive use among women with known dyslipidemias: a systematic review of critical safety outcomes. Contraception 2015;S0010-7824(15)00509-0. Article available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Combined+hormonal+contraceptive+use+among+women+with+known+dyslipidemias%3A+a+systematic+review+of+critical+safety+outcomes and http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010782415005090
  90.  US Department of Health and Human Services. Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2012. Report No. 0083–1972. Hyattsville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.
  91.  CDC. Surveillance for viral hepatitis—United States, 2013. Atlanta, GA: CDC; 2013. http://www. cdc. gov/hepatitis/statistics/2013surveillance/index. htm
  92.  Kohler BA, Sherman RL, Howlader N, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2011, featuring incidence of breast cancer subtypes by race/ethnicity, poverty, and state. J Natl Cancer Inst 2015;107:djv048. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/jnci/djv048 PubMed
  93.  Kapp N, Tilley IB, Curtis KM. The effects of hormonal contraceptive use among women with viral hepatitis or cirrhosis of the liver: a systematic review. Contraception 2009;80:381–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2009. 04. 007 PubMed
  94.  Kapp N, Curtis KM. Hormonal contraceptive use among women with liver tumors: a systematic review. Contraception 2009;80:387–90. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2009. 01. 021 PubMed
  95.  Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA. Physical examination prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:650–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 010 PubMed
  96. National Cancer Institute. SEER Fast Stats. 2015.
  97.  Watson M, Saraiya M, Benard V, et al. Burden of cervical cancer in the United States, 1998-2003. Cancer 2008;113(Suppl):2855–64. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1002/cncr. 23756 PubMed
  98.  National Center for Health Statistics, CDC. Health, United States, 2014: with special feature on adults. Hyattsville, MD: CDC; 2015.
  99.  European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples. BMJ 1992;304:809–13. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1136/bmj. 304. 6830. 809 PubMed
  100.  Coleman JS, Mwachari C, Balkus J, et al. Effect of the levonorgestrel intrauterine device on genital HIV-1 RNA shedding among HIV-1-infected women not taking antiretroviral therapy in Nairobi, Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013;63:245–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/QAI. 0b013e31828decf8 PubMed
  101.  Haddad LB, Cwiak C, Jamieson DJ, et al. Contraceptive adherence among HIV-infected women in Malawi: a randomized controlled trial of the copper intrauterine device and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 2013;88:737–43. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2013. 08. 006 PubMed
  102.  Heikinheimo O, Lehtovirta P, Aho I, Ristola M, Paavonen J. The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: a 5-year follow-up study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:126 e1–4. Article available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=The+levonorgestrel-releasing+intrauterine+system+in+human+immunodeficiency+virus-infected+women%3A+a+5-year+follow-up+study and http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002937810011282
  103.  Heikinheimo O, Lehtovirta P, Suni J, Paavonen J. The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) in HIV-infected women—effects on bleeding patterns, ovarian function and genital shedding of HIV. Hum Reprod 2006;21:2857–61. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/del264 PubMed
  104.  Kakaire O, Byamugisha JK, Tumwesigye NM, Gemzell-Danielsson K. Clinical versus laboratory screening for sexually transmitted infections prior to insertion of intrauterine contraception among women living with HIV/AIDS: a randomized controlled trial. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1573–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/dev109 PubMed
  105.  Kovacs A, Wasserman SS, Burns D, et al; DATRI Study Group; WIHS Study Group. Determinants of HIV-1 shedding in the genital tract of women. Lancet 2001;358:1593–601. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(01)06653-3 PubMed
  106.  Landolt NK, Phanuphak N, Teeratakulpisarn N, et al. Uptake and continuous use of copper intrauterine device in a cohort of HIV-positive women. AIDS Care 2013;25:710–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09540121. 2012. 752786 PubMed
  107.  Lehtovirta P, Paavonen J, Heikinheimo O. Experience with the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system among HIV-infected women. Contraception 2007;75:37–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 09. 006 PubMed
  108.  Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Sinei SK, Weiner DH, Kwok C, Kokonya D. Is the intrauterine device appropriate contraception for HIV-1-infected women? BJOG 2001;108:784–90. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1471-0528. 2001. 00204. x PubMed
  109.  Mostad SB, Overbaugh J, DeVange DM, et al. Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors for shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina. Lancet 1997;350:922–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(97)04240-2 PubMed
  110.  Richardson BA, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, et al. Effect of intrauterine device use on cervical shedding of HIV-1 DNA. AIDS 1999;13:2091–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/00002030-199910220-00012 PubMed
  111.  Sinei SK, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Allen M, Kokonya D. Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women. Lancet 1998;351:1238–41. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(97)10319-1 PubMed
  112. Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, Sinkala M, Goldenberg RL, Chi BH, et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:144 e1–8. Article available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=A+randomized+trial+of+the+intrauterine+contraceptive+device+vs+hormonal+contraception+in+women+who+are+infected+with+the+human+immunodeficiency+virus and http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002937807003997
  113.  Stringer EM, Levy J, Sinkala M, et al. HIV disease progression by hormonal contraceptive method: secondary analysis of a randomized trial. AIDS 2009;23:1377–82. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/QAD. 0b013e32832cbca8 PubMed
  114.  Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Nanda K, Jamieson DJ. Safety of intrauterine devices among women with HIV: a systematic review. Contraception 2016. Article available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27343750 and http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010782416301317
  115.  Lopez LM, Bernholc A, Zeng Y, et al. Interventions for pain with intrauterine device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;7:CD007373.  PubMed
  116.  Zapata LB, Jatlaoui T, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Medications to ease intrauterine device insertion: A systematic review. Contraception 2016. Article available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27373540 and http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010782416301354
  117.  Bahamondes MV, Espejo-Arce X, Bahamondes L. Effect of vaginal administration of misoprostol before intrauterine contraceptive insertion following previous insertion failure: a double blind RCT. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1861–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/dev137 PubMed
  118.  Cirik D, Taskin E, Tuglu A, Ortac A, Dai O. Paracervical block with 1% lidocaine for pain control during intrauterine device insertion: a prospective, single-blinded, controlled study. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol 2013;2:263–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.5455/2320-1770ijrcog20130902.
  119.  Mody SK, Kiley J, Rademaker A, Gawron L, Stika C, Hammond C. Pain control for intrauterine device insertion: a randomized trial of 1% lidocaine paracervical block. Contraception 2012;86:704–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.06.004 PubMed
  120.  Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Prophylactic antibiotics for intrauterine device insertion: a metaanalysis of the randomized controlled trials. Contraception 1999;60:57–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00071-2 PubMed
  121.  Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M, et al; American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007;116:1736–54. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1161/CIRCULATIONAHA. 106. 183095 PubMed
  122.  Steenland MW, Zapata LB, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. The effect of follow-up visits or contacts after contraceptive initiation on method continuation and correct use. Contraception 2013;87:625–30. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 018 PubMed
  123.  Steenland MW, Zapata LB, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Appropriate follow up to detect potential adverse events after initiation of select contraceptive methods: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:611–24. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 017 PubMed
  124.  Canto De Cetina TE, Canto P, Ordoñez Luna M. Effect of counseling to improve compliance in Mexican women receiving depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 2001;63:143–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(01)00181-0 PubMed
  125.  Lei ZW, Wu SC, Garceau RJ, et al. Effect of pretreatment counseling on discontinuation rates in Chinese women given depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. Contraception 1996;53:357–61. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(96)00085-6 PubMed
  126.  Godfrey EM, Folger SG, Jeng G, Jamieson DJ, Curtis KM. Treatment of bleeding irregularities in women with copper-containing IUDs: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:549–66. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 006 PubMed
  127.  Toppozada M, Anwar M, Abdel Rahman H, Gaweesh S. Control of IUD-induced bleeding by three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Contracept Deliv Syst 1982;3:117–25.  PubMed
  128.  Toppozada M, El-Attar A, El-Ayyat MA, Khamis Y. Management of uterine bleeding by PGs or their synthesis inhibitors. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Res 1980;8:1459–63.  PubMed
  129.  Wu S, Wang C, Cheng W, et al. Randomized multi-center study of baofuxin for treatment of bleeding side-effect induced by IUD. Reprod Contracept 2000;11:152–7.
  130.  Mercorio F, De Simone R, Di Carlo C, et al. Effectiveness and mechanism of action of desmopressin in the treatment of copper intrauterine device-related menorrhagia: a pilot study. Hum Reprod 2003;18:2319–22. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/deg449 PubMed
  131.  Pedron N, Lozano M, Aznar R. Treatment of hypermenorrhea with mefenamic acid in women using IUDs. Contracept Deliv Syst 1982;3:135–9.  PubMed
  132.  Pizarro E, Mehech G, Hidalgo M, Muñoz G, Romero C. Effect of meclofenamic acid on menstruation in hypermenorrheic women using intrauterine devices [Spanish]. Rev Chil Obstet Ginecol 1988;53:43–56.  PubMed
  133.  Chinese National IUD Research Working Group. Prevention and treatment of IUD-induced menorrhagia with antifibrinolytic and antiprostaglandin drugs [Chinese]. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi 1987;22:291–4, 312.  PubMed
  134.  Di Lieto A, Catalano D, Miranda L, Paladini A. Action of a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor on IUD associated uterine bleeding. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 1987;14:41–4.  PubMed
  135.  Ylikorkala O, Viinikka L. Comparison between antifibrinolytic and antiprostaglandin treatment in the reduction of increased menstrual blood loss in women with intrauterine contraceptive devices. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:78–83. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1471-0528. 1983. tb06751. x PubMed
  136.  U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Cyklokapron: tranexamic acid injection [Prescribing information]. New York, NY. 2011.
  137.  U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Lysteda: tranexamic acid tablets [Prescribing information]. Parsippany, NJ. 2011.
  138.  Pedrón N, Lozano M, Gallegos AJ. The effect of acetylsalicylic acid on menstrual blood loss in women with IUDs. Contraception 1987;36:295–303. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(87)90099-0 PubMed
  139.  Hidalgo M, Bahamondes L, Perrotti M, Diaz J, Dantas-Monteiro C, Petta C. Bleeding patterns and clinical performance of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (Mirena) up to two years. Contraception 2002;65:129–32. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(01)00302-X PubMed
  140.  Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Gaffield ME, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Retention of intrauterine devices in women who acquire pelvic inflammatory disease: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:655–60. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 011 PubMed
  141.  Larsson B, Wennergren M. Investigation of a copper-intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) for possible effect on frequency and healing of pelvic inflammatory disease. Contraception 1977;15:143–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(77)90012-9 PubMed
  142.  Söderberg G, Lindgren S. Influence of an intrauterine device on the course of an acute salpingitis. Contraception 1981;24:137–43. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(81)90086-X PubMed
  143.  Teisala K. Removal of an intrauterine device and the treatment of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Ann Med 1989;21:63–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3109/07853898909149184 PubMed
  144.  Altunyurt S, Demir N, Posaci C. A randomized controlled trial of coil removal prior to treatment of pelvic inflammatory disease. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003;107:81–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0301-2115(02)00342-1 PubMed
  145.  Stewart FH, Harper CC, Ellertson CE, Grimes DA, Sawaya GF, Trussell J. Clinical breast and pelvic examination requirements for hormonal contraception: Current practice vs evidence. JAMA 2001;285:2232–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1001/jama. 285. 17. 2232 PubMed
  146.  Mansour D, Korver T, Marintcheva-Petrova M, Fraser IS. The effects of Implanon on menstrual bleeding patterns. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2008;13(Suppl 1):13–28. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/13625180801959931 PubMed
  147.  Abdel-Aleem H, d’Arcangues C, Vogelsong K, Gülmezoglu AM. Treatment of vaginal bleeding irregularities induced by progestin only contraceptives. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (2):CD003449.  PubMed
  148.  Archer DF, Philput CB, Levine AS, et al. Effects of ethinyl estradiol and ibuprofen compared to placebo on endometrial bleeding, cervical mucus and the postcoital test in levonorgestrel subcutaneous implant users. Contraception 2008;78:106–12. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2008. 04. 003 PubMed
  149.  Buasang K, Taneepanichskul S. Efficacy of celecoxib on controlling irregular uterine bleeding secondary to Jadelle use. J Med Assoc Thai 2009;92:301–7.  PubMed
  150.  Phaliwong P, Taneepanichskul S. The effect of mefenamic acid on controlling irregular uterine bleeding second to Implanon use. J Med Assoc Thai 2004;87(Suppl 3):S64–8.  PubMed
  151.  Weisberg E, Hickey M, Palmer D, et al. A randomized controlled trial of treatment options for troublesome uterine bleeding in Implanon users. Hum Reprod 2009;24:1852–61. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/dep081 PubMed
  152.  Weisberg E, Hickey M, Palmer D, et al. A pilot study to assess the effect of three short-term treatments on frequent and/or prolonged bleeding compared to placebo in women using Implanon. Hum Reprod 2006;21:295–302. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/dei273 PubMed
  153.  Cheng L, Zhu H, Wang A, Ren F, Chen J, Glasier A. Once a month administration of mifepristone improves bleeding patterns in women using subdermal contraceptive implants releasing levonorgestrel. Hum Reprod 2000;15:1969–72. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/15. 9. 1969 PubMed
  154.  Alvarez-Sanchez F, Brache V, Thevenin F, Cochon L, Faundes A. Hormonal treatment for bleeding irregularities in Norplant implant users. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:919–22. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0002-9378(96)70326-5 PubMed
  155.  Díaz S, Croxatto HB, Pavez M, Belhadj H, Stern J, Sivin I. Clinical assessment of treatments for prolonged bleeding in users of Norplant implants. Contraception 1990;42:97–109. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(90)90094-C PubMed
  156.  Witjaksono J, Lau TM, Affandi B, Rogers PA. Oestrogen treatment for increased bleeding in Norplant users: preliminary results. Hum Reprod 1996;11(Suppl 2):109–14. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/11. suppl_2. 109 PubMed
  157.  Abdel-Aleem H, Shaaban OM, Amin AF, Abdel-Aleem AM. Tamoxifen treatment of bleeding irregularities associated with Norplant use. Contraception 2005;72:432–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 05. 015 PubMed
  158.  Phupong V, Sophonsritsuk A, Taneepanichskul S. The effect of tranexamic acid for treatment of irregular uterine bleeding secondary to Norplant use. Contraception 2006;73:253–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 09. 012 PubMed
  159.  d’Arcangues C, Piaggio G, Brache V, et al; Study Group on Progestogen-induced Vaginal Bleeding Disturbances. Effectiveness and acceptability of vitamin E and low-dose aspirin, alone or in combination, on Norplant-induced prolonged bleeding. Contraception 2004;70:451–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 05. 012 PubMed
  160.  Subakir SB, Setiadi E, Affandi B, Pringgoutomo S, Freisleben HJ. Benefits of vitamin E supplementation to Norplant users—in vitro and in vivo studies. Toxicology 2000;148:173–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0300-483X(00)00208-0 PubMed
  161.  Kapp N, Gaffield ME. Initiation of progestogen-only injectables on different days of the menstrual cycle and its effect on contraceptive effectiveness and compliance: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:576–82. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 017 PubMed
  162.  Petta CA, Faúndes A, Dunson TR, et al. Timing of onset of contraceptive effectiveness in Depo-Provera users. II. Effects on ovarian function. Fertil Steril 1998;70:817–20. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(98)00309-4 PubMed
  163.  Petta CA, Faundes A, Dunson TR, et al. Timing of onset of contraceptive effectiveness in Depo-Provera users: Part I. Changes in cervical mucus. Fertil Steril 1998;69:252–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(97)00477-9 PubMed
  164.  Siriwongse T, Snidvongs W, Tantayaporn P, Leepipatpaiboon S. Effect of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate on serum progesterone levels when administered on various cycle days. Contraception 1982;26:487–93. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(82)90147-0 PubMed
  165.  Balkus J, Miller L. Same-day administration of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate injection: a retrospective chart review. Contraception 2005;71:395–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 10. 014 PubMed
  166.  Morroni C, Grams M, Tiezzi L, Westhoff C. Immediate monthly combination contraception to facilitate initiation of the depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraceptive injection. Contraception 2004;70:19–23. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 02. 007 PubMed
  167.  Nelson AL, Katz T. Initiation and continuation rates seen in 2-year experience with Same Day injections of DMPA. Contraception 2007;75:84–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 09. 007 PubMed
  168.  Rickert VI, Tiezzi L, Lipshutz J, León J, Vaughan RD, Westhoff C. Depo Now: preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health 2007;40:22–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jadohealth. 2006. 10. 018 PubMed
  169.  Sneed R, Westhoff C, Morroni C, Tiezzi L. A prospective study of immediate initiation of depo medroxyprogesterone acetate contraceptive injection. Contraception 2005;71:99–103. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 08. 014 PubMed
  170.  Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA. Blood pressure measurement prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:631–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 025 PubMed
  171.  Diab KM, Zaki MM. Contraception in diabetic women: comparative metabolic study of Norplant, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, low dose oral contraceptive pill and CuT380A. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2000;26:17–26. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1447-0756. 2000. tb01195. x PubMed
  172.  Garg SK, Chase HP, Marshall G, Hoops SL, Holmes DL, Jackson WE. Oral contraceptives and renal and retinal complications in young women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1994;271:1099–102. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1001/jama. 1994. 03510380055037 PubMed
  173.  Grigoryan OR, Grodnitskaya EE, Andreeva EN, Chebotnikova TV, Melnichenko GA. Use of the NuvaRing hormone-releasing system in late reproductive-age women with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Gynecol Endocrinol 2008;24:99–104. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/09513590701708795 PubMed
  174.  Kahn HS, Curtis KM, Marchbanks PA. Effects of injectable or implantable progestin-only contraceptives on insulin-glucose metabolism and diabetes risk. Diabetes Care 2003;26:216–25. http://dx. doi. org/10. 2337/diacare. 26. 1. 216 PubMed
  175.  Lopez LM, Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Steroidal contraceptives: effect on carbohydrate metabolism in women without diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (4):CD006133.  PubMed
  176.  Rogovskaya S, Rivera R, Grimes DA, et al. Effect of a levonorgestrel intrauterine system on women with type 1 diabetes: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:811–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000156301. 11939. 56 PubMed
  177.  Troisi RJ, Cowie CC, Harris MI. Oral contraceptive use and glucose metabolism in a national sample of women in the united states. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:389–95. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1067/mob. 2000. 105909 PubMed
  178.  Bonny AE, Secic M, Cromer B. Early weight gain related to later weight gain in adolescents on depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:793–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e31820f387c PubMed
  179.  Le YC, Rahman M, Berenson AB. Early weight gain predicting later weight gain among depot medroxyprogesterone acetate users. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:279–84. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181af68b2 PubMed
  180.  Risser WL, Gefter LR, Barratt MS, Risser JM. Weight change in adolescents who used hormonal contraception. J Adolesc Health 1999;24:433–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S1054-139X(98)00151-7 PubMed
  181.  Paulen ME, Curtis KM. When can a woman have repeat progestogen-only injectables—depot medroxyprogesterone acetate or norethisterone enantate? Contraception 2009;80:391–408. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2009. 03. 023 PubMed
  182.  Pardthaisong T. Return of fertility after use of the injectable contraceptive Depo Provera: up-dated data analysis. J Biosoc Sci 1984;16:23–34. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1017/S0021932000014760 PubMed
  183.  Schwallie PC, Assenzo JR. The effect of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate on pituitary and ovarian function, and the return of fertility following its discontinuation: a review. Contraception 1974;10:181–202. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(74)90073-0 PubMed
  184.  Steiner MJ, Kwok C, Stanback J, et al. Injectable contraception: what should the longest interval be for reinjections? Contraception 2008;77:410–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2008. 01. 017 PubMed
  185.  Bassol S, Garza-Flores J, Cravioto MC, et al. Ovarian function following a single administration of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) at different doses. Fertil Steril 1984;42:216–22.  PubMed
  186.  Fotherby K, Koetsawang S, Mathrubutham M. Pharmacokinetic study of different doses of Depo Provera. Contraception 1980;22:527–36. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(80)90105-5 PubMed
  187.  Fotherby K, Saxena BN, Shrimanker K, et al. A preliminary pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone oenanthate. Fertil Steril 1980;34:131–9.  PubMed
  188.  Garza-Flores J, Cardenas S, Rodríguez V, Cravioto MC, Diaz-Sanchez V, Perez-Palacios G. Return to ovulation following the use of long-acting injectable contraceptives: a comparative study. Contraception 1985;31:361–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(85)90004-6 PubMed
  189.  Jain J, Dutton C, Nicosia A, Wajszczuk C, Bode FR, Mishell DR Jr. Pharmacokinetics, ovulation suppression and return to ovulation following a lower dose subcutaneous formulation of Depo-Provera. Contraception 2004;70:11–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 01. 011 PubMed
  190.  Lan PT, Aedo AR, Landgren BM, Johannisson E, Diczfalusy E. Return of ovulation following a single injection of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. Contraception 1984;29:1–18. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(84)90054-4 PubMed
  191.  Ortiz A, Hirol M, Stanczyk FZ, Goebelsmann U, Mishell DR Jr. Serum medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) concentrations and ovarian function following intramuscular injection of depo-MPA. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977;44:32–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1210/jcem-44-1-32 PubMed
  192.  Saxena BN, Dusitsin N, Tankeyoon M, Chaudhury RR. Return of ovulation after the cessation of depot-medroxy progesterone acetate treatment in Thai women. J Med Assoc Thai 1980;63:66–9.  PubMed
  193.  Toh YC, Jain J, Rahnny MH, Bode FR, Ross D. Suppression of ovulation by a new subcutaneous depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (104 mg/0. 65 mL) contraceptive formulation in Asian women. Clin Ther 2004;26:1845–54. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. clinthera. 2004. 11. 013 PubMed
  194.  Arias RD, Jain JK, Brucker C, Ross D, Ray A. Changes in bleeding patterns with depot medroxyprogesterone acetate subcutaneous injection 104 mg. Contraception 2006;74:234–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 03. 008 PubMed
  195.  Dempsey A, Roca C, Westhoff C. Vaginal estrogen supplementation during Depo-Provera initiation: a randomized controlled trial. Contraception 2010;82:250–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2010. 04. 003
  196.  Abdel-Aleem H, d’Arcangues C, Vogelsong KM, Gülmezoglu AM. Treatment of vaginal bleeding irregularities induced by progestin only contraceptives. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (4):CD003449.  PubMed
  197.  Harel Z, Biro F, Kollar L, Riggs S, Flanagan P, Vaz R. Supplementation with vitamin C and/or vitamin B(6) in the prevention of Depo-Provera side effects in adolescents. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2002;15:153–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S1083-3188(02)00148-1 PubMed
  198.  Nathirojanakun P, Taneepanichskul S, Sappakitkumjorn N. Efficacy of a selective COX-2 inhibitor for controlling irregular uterine bleeding in DMPA users. Contraception 2006;73:584–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 09. 013 PubMed
  199.  Tantiwattanakul P, Taneepanichskul S. Effect of mefenamic acid on controlling irregular uterine bleeding in DMPA users. Contraception 2004;70:277–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 04. 003 PubMed
  200.  Said S, Sadek W, Rocca M, et al. Clinical evaluation of the therapeutic effectiveness of ethinyl oestradiol and oestrone sulphate on prolonged bleeding in women using depot medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. World Health Organization, Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Task Force on Long-acting Systemic Agents for Fertility Regulation. Hum Reprod 1996;11(Suppl 2):1–13. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/11. suppl_2. 1 PubMed
  201.  Sadeghi-Bazargani H, Ehdaeivand F, Arshi S, Eftekhar H, Sezavar H, Amanati L. Low-dose oral contraceptive to re-induce menstrual bleeding in amenorrheic women on DMPA treatment: a randomized clinical trial. Med Sci Monit 2006;12:CR420–5.  PubMed
  202.  Brahmi D, Curtis KM. When can a woman start combined hormonal contraceptives (CHCs)? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:524–38. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 010 PubMed
  203.  Edwards SM, Zieman M, Jones K, Diaz A, Robilotto C, Westhoff C. Initiation of oral contraceptives—start now! J Adolesc Health 2008;43:432–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jadohealth. 2008. 06. 008 PubMed
  204.  Westhoff C, Heartwell S, Edwards S, et al. Initiation of oral contraceptives using a quick start compared with a conventional start: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:1270–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000264550. 41242. f2 PubMed
  205.  Westhoff C, Morroni C, Kerns J, Murphy PA. Bleeding patterns after immediate vs. conventional oral contraceptive initiation: a randomized, controlled trial. Fertil Steril 2003;79:322–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(02)04680-0 PubMed
  206.  Baerwald AR, Olatunbosun OA, Pierson RA. Ovarian follicular development is initiated during the hormone-free interval of oral contraceptive use. Contraception 2004;70:371–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 05. 006 PubMed
  207.  Baerwald AR, Pierson RA. Ovarian follicular development during the use of oral contraception: a review. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2004;26:19–24. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S1701-2163(16)30692-2 PubMed
  208.  Duijkers IJM, Klipping C, Verhoeven CHJ, Dieben TOM. Ovarian function with the contraceptive vaginal ring or an oral contraceptive: a randomized study. Hum Reprod 2004;19:2668–73. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/deh493 PubMed
  209.  Killick S, Eyong E, Elstein M. Ovarian follicular development in oral contraceptive cycles. Fertil Steril 1987;48:409–13.  PubMed
  210.  Molloy BG, Coulson KA, Lee JM, Watters JK. “Missed pill” conception: fact or fiction? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;290:1474–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1136/bmj. 290. 6480. 1474-a PubMed
  211.  Mulders TM, Dieben TO, Bennink HJ. Ovarian function with a novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring. Hum Reprod 2002;17:2594–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/17. 10. 2594 PubMed
  212.  Schwartz JL, Creinin MD, Pymar HC, Reid L. Predicting risk of ovulation in new start oral contraceptive users. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:177–82.  PubMed
  213.  Sitavarin S, Jaisamrarn U, Taneepanichskul S. A randomized trial on the impact of starting day on ovarian follicular activity in very low dose oral contraceptive pills users. J Med Assoc Thai 2003;86:442–8.  PubMed
  214.  Taylor DR, Anthony FW, Dennis KJ. Suppression of ovarian function by Microgynon 30 in day 1 and day 5 “starters”. Contraception 1986;33:463–71. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(86)80005-1 PubMed
  215.  Smith SK, Kirkman RJ, Arce BB, McNeilly AS, Loudon NB, Baird DT. The effect of deliberate omission of Trinordiol or Microgynon on the hypothalamo-pituitary-ovarian axis. Contraception 1986;34:513–22. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(86)90060-0 PubMed
  216.  Lara-Torre E, Schroeder B. Adolescent compliance and side effects with Quick Start initiation of oral contraceptive pills. Contraception 2002;66:81–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(02)00326-8 PubMed
  217.  Murthy AS, Creinin MD, Harwood B, Schreiber CA. Same-day initiation of the transdermal hormonal delivery system (contraceptive patch) versus traditional initiation methods. Contraception 2005;72:333–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 05. 009 PubMed
  218.  Westhoff C, Osborne LM, Schafer JE, Morroni C. Bleeding patterns after immediate initiation of an oral compared with a vaginal hormonal contraceptive. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:89–96. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000164483. 13326. 59 PubMed
  219.  Yeshaya A, Orvieto R, Kaplan B, et al. Flexible starting schedule for oral contraception: effect on the incidence of breakthrough bleeding and compliance. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1998;3:121–3. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3109/13625189809051414 PubMed
  220.  Yeshaya A, Orvieto R, Kauschansky A, et al. A delayed starting schedule of oral contraception: the effect on the incidence of breakthrough bleeding and compliance in women. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1996;1:263–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3109/13625189609150668 PubMed
  221.  Westhoff C, Kerns J, Morroni C, Cushman LF, Tiezzi L, Murphy PA. Quick start: novel oral contraceptive initiation method. Contraception 2002;66:141–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(02)00351-7 PubMed
  222.  WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Acute myocardial infarction and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international multicentre case-control study. Lancet 1997;349:1202–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(97)02358-1 PubMed
  223.  Dunn N, Thorogood M, Faragher B, et al. Oral contraceptives and myocardial infarction: results of the MICA case-control study. BMJ 1999;318:1579–83. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1136/bmj. 318. 7198. 1579 PubMed
  224.  Lewis MA, Heinemann LA, Spitzer WO, MacRae KD, Bruppacher R. The use of oral contraceptives and the occurrence of acute myocardial infarction in young women. Results from the Transnational Study on Oral Contraceptives and the Health of Young Women. Contraception 1997;56:129–40. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(97)00118-2 PubMed
  225.  WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Ischaemic stroke and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international, multicentre, case-control study. Lancet 1996;348:498–505. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(95)12393-8 PubMed
  226.  Heinemann LA, Lewis MA, Spitzer WO, Thorogood M, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I, Bruppacher R; Transnational Research Group on Oral Contraceptives and the Health of Young Women. Thromboembolic stroke in young women. A European case-control study on oral contraceptives. Contraception 1998;57:29–37. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(97)00204-7 PubMed
  227.  WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Haemorrhagic stroke, overall stroke risk, and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international, multicentre, case-control study. Lancet 1996;348:505–10. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(95)12394-6 PubMed
  228.  Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Martins SL, Peterson HB. Does use of hormonal contraceptives among women with thrombogenic mutations increase their risk of venous thromboembolism? A systematic review. Contraception 2006;73:166–78. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2005. 08. 011 PubMed
  229.  Wu O, Robertson L, Twaddle S, et al. Screening for thrombophilia in high-risk situations: systematic review and cost-effectiveness analysis. The Thrombosis: Risk and Economic Assessment of Thrombophilia Screening (TREATS) study. Health Technol Assess 2006;10:1–110. http://dx. doi. org/10. 3310/hta10110 PubMed
  230.  Wu O, Greer IA. Is screening for thrombophilia cost-effective? Curr Opin Hematol 2007;14:500–3. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/MOH. 0b013e32825f5318 PubMed
  231.  Blickstein D, Blickstein I. Oral contraception and thrombophilia. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2007;19:370–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/GCO. 0b013e32821642e6 PubMed
  232.  Steenland MW, Rodriguez MI, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. How does the number of oral contraceptive pill packs dispensed or prescribed affect continuation and other measures of consistent and correct use? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:605–10. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 004 PubMed
  233.  White KO, Westhoff C. The effect of pack supply on oral contraceptive pill continuation: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011;118:615–22. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3182289eab PubMed
  234.  Foster DG, Parvataneni R, de Bocanegra HT, Lewis C, Bradsberry M, Darney P. Number of oral contraceptive pill packages dispensed, method continuation, and costs. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:1107–14. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000239122. 98508. 39 PubMed
  235.  Foster DG, Hulett D, Bradsberry M, Darney P, Policar M. Number of oral contraceptive pill packages dispensed and subsequent unintended pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:566–72. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3182056309 PubMed
  236.  Chin-Quee DS, Cuthbertson C, Janowitz B. Over-the-counter pill provision: evidence from Jamaica. Stud Fam Plann 2006;37:99–110. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1728-4465. 2006. 00089. x PubMed
  237.  Zapata LB, Steenland MW, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Effect of missed combined hormonal contraceptives on contraceptive effectiveness: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:685–700. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 035 PubMed
  238.  Anttila L, Kunz M, Marr J. Bleeding pattern with drospirenone 3 mg+ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg 24/4 combined oral contraceptive compared with desogestrel 150 mcg+ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg 21/7 combined oral contraceptive. Contraception 2009;80:445–51. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2009. 03. 013 PubMed
  239.  Chowdhury V, Joshi UM, Gopalkrishna K, Betrabet S, Mehta S, Saxena BN. ‘Escape’ ovulation in women due to the missing of low dose combination oral contraceptive pills. Contraception 1980;22:241–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(80)80003-5 PubMed
  240.  Christin-Maitre S, Serfaty D, Chabbert-Buffet N, Ochsenbein E, Chassard D, Thomas JL. Comparison of a 24-day and a 21-day pill regimen for the novel combined oral contraceptive, nomegestrol acetate and 17β-estradiol (NOMAC/E2): a double-blind, randomized study. Hum Reprod 2011;26:1338–47. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/der058 PubMed
  241.  Creinin MD, Lippman JS, Eder SE, Godwin AJ, Olson W. The effect of extending the pill-free interval on follicular activity: triphasic norgestimate/35 μg ethinyl estradiol versus monophasic levonorgestrel/20 μg ethinyl estradiol. Contraception 2002;66:147–52. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(02)00344-X PubMed
  242.  Dinger J, Minh TD, Buttmann N, Bardenheuer K. Effectiveness of oral contraceptive pills in a large U.S. cohort comparing progestogen and regimen. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:33–40. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e31820095a2 PubMed
  243.  Elomaa K, Lähteenmäki P. Ovulatory potential of preovulatory sized follicles during oral contraceptive treatment. Contraception 1999;60:275–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(99)00094-3 PubMed
  244.  Elomaa K, Rolland R, Brosens I, et al. Omitting the first oral contraceptive pills of the cycle does not automatically lead to ovulation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:41–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0002-9378(98)70249-2 PubMed
  245.  Endrikat J, Wessel J, Rosenbaum P, Düsterberg B. Plasma concentrations of endogenous hormones during one regular treatment cycle with a low-dose oral contraceptive and during two cycles with deliberate omission of two tablets. Gynecol Endocrinol 2004;18:318–26. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/0951359042000199869 PubMed
  246.  Hamilton CJ, Hoogland HJ. Longitudinal ultrasonographic study of the ovarian suppressive activity of a low-dose triphasic oral contraceptive during correct and incorrect pill intake. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1159–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0002-9378(89)90655-8 PubMed
  247.  Hedon B, Cristol P, Plauchut A, et al. Ovarian consequences of the transient interruption of combined oral contraceptives. Int J Fertil 1992;37:270–6.  PubMed
  248.  Killick SR. Ovarian follicles during oral contraceptive cycles: their potential for ovulation. Fertil Steril 1989;52:580–2.  PubMed
  249.  Killick SR, Bancroft K, Oelbaum S, Morris J, Elstein M. Extending the duration of the pill-free interval during combined oral contraception. Adv Contracept 1990;6:33–40. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1007/BF01849485 PubMed
  250.  Klipping C, Duijkers I, Trummer D, Marr J. Suppression of ovarian activity with a drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive in a 24/4 regimen. Contraception 2008;78:16–25. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2008. 02. 019 PubMed
  251.  Klipping C, Marr J. Effects of two combined oral contraceptives containing ethinyl estradiol 20 microg combined with either drospirenone or desogestrel on lipids, hemostatic parameters and carbohydrate metabolism. Contraception 2005;71:409–16. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2004. 12. 005 PubMed
  252.  Landgren BM, Csemiczky G. The effect of follicular growth and luteal function of “missing the pill”. A comparison between a monophasic and a triphasic combined oral contraceptive. Contraception 1991;43:149–59. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(91)90042-E PubMed
  253.  Landgren BM, Diczfalusy E. Hormonal consequences of missing the pill during the first two days of three consecutive artificial cycles. Contraception 1984;29:437–46. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(84)90017-9 PubMed
  254.  Letterie GS. A regimen of oral contraceptives restricted to the periovulatory period may permit folliculogenesis but inhibit ovulation. Contraception 1998;57:39–44. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(97)00205-9 PubMed
  255.  Letterie GS, Chow GE. Effect of “missed” pills on oral contraceptive effectiveness. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:979–82.  PubMed
  256.  Morris SE, Groom GV, Cameron ED, Buckingham MS, Everitt JM, Elstein M. Studies on low dose oral contraceptives: plasma hormone changes in relation to deliberate pill (‘Microgynon 30’) omission. Contraception 1979;20:61–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(79)90045-3 PubMed
  257.  Nakajima ST, Archer DF, Ellman H. Efficacy and safety of a new 24-day oral contraceptive regimen of norethindrone acetate 1 mg/ethinyl estradiol 20 μg (Loestrin 24 Fe). Contraception 2007;75:16–22. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 08. 004 PubMed
  258.  Nuttall ID, Elstein M, McCafferty E, Seth J, Cameron ED. The effect of ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg and levonorgestrel 250 mcg on the pituitary-ovarian function during normal tablet-taking and when tablets are missed. Contraception 1982;26:121–35. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(82)90081-6 PubMed
  259.  Pierson RA, Archer DF, Moreau M, Shangold GA, Fisher AC, Creasy GW. Ortho Evra/Evra versus oral contraceptives: follicular development and ovulation in normal cycles and after an intentional dosing error. Fertil Steril 2003;80:34–42. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(03)00556-9 PubMed
  260.  Rible RD, Taylor D, Wilson ML, Stanczyk FZ, Mishell DR Jr. Follicular development in a 7-day versus 4-day hormone-free interval with an oral contraceptive containing 20 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 1 mg norethindrone acetate. Contraception 2009;79:182–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2008. 10. 005 PubMed
  261.  Schlaff WD, Lynch AM, Hughes HD, Cedars MI, Smith DL. Manipulation of the pill-free interval in oral contraceptive pill users: the effect on follicular suppression. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;190:943–51. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. ajog. 2004. 02. 012 PubMed
  262.  Spona J, Elstein M, Feichtinger W, et al. Shorter pill-free interval in combined oral contraceptives decreases follicular development. Contraception 1996;54:71–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(96)00137-0 PubMed
  263.  Sullivan H, Furniss H, Spona J, Elstein M. Effect of 21-day and 24-day oral contraceptive regimens containing gestodene (60 μg) and ethinyl estradiol (15 μg) on ovarian activity. Fertil Steril 1999;72:115–20. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(99)00205-8 PubMed
  264.  Wang E, Shi S, Cekan SZ, Landgren BM, Diczfalusy E. Hormonal consequences of “missing the pill”. Contraception 1982;26:545–66. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(82)90131-7 PubMed
  265.  Willis SA, Kuehl TJ, Spiekerman AM, Sulak PJ. Greater inhibition of the pituitary—ovarian axis in oral contraceptive regimens with a shortened hormone-free interval. Contraception 2006;74:100–3. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 02. 006 PubMed
  266.  Abrams LS, Skee DM, Natarajan J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of norelgestromin and ethinyl estradiol delivered by a contraceptive patch (Ortho Evra/Evra) under conditions of heat, humidity, and exercise. J Clin Pharmacol 2001;41:1301–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1177/00912700122012887 PubMed
  267.  Ahrendt HJ, Nisand I, Bastianelli C, et al. Efficacy, acceptability and tolerability of the combined contraceptive ring, NuvaRing, compared with an oral contraceptive containing 30 microg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone. Contraception 2006;74:451–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2006. 07. 004 PubMed
  268.  Bjarnadóttir RI, Tuppurainen M, Killick SR. Comparison of cycle control with a combined contraceptive vaginal ring and oral levonorgestrel/ethinyl estradiol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:389–95. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1067/mob. 2002. 121103 PubMed
  269.  Brucker C, Karck U, Merkle E. Cycle control, tolerability, efficacy and acceptability of the vaginal contraceptive ring, NuvaRing: results of clinical experience in Germany. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2008;13:31–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/13625180701577122 PubMed
  270.  Dieben TO, Roumen FJ, Apter D. Efficacy, cycle control, and user acceptability of a novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:585–93.  PubMed
  271.  Mulders TM, Dieben TO. Use of the novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring NuvaRing for ovulation inhibition. Fertil Steril 2001;75:865–70. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(01)01689-2 PubMed
  272.  Guilbert E, Boroditsky R, Black A, et al; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Canadian Consensus Guideline on Continuous and Extended Hormonal Contraception, 2007. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007;29(Suppl 2):S1–32. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S1701-2163(16)32526-9 PubMed
  273.  Wiegratz I, Stahlberg S, Manthey T, et al. Effect of extended-cycle regimen with an oral contraceptive containing 30 mcg ethinylestradiol and 2 mg dienogest on bleeding patterns, safety, acceptance and contraceptive efficacy. Contraception 2011;84:133–43. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2011. 01. 002 PubMed
  274.  Hubacher D, Fortney J. Follow-up visits after IUD insertion. Are more better? J Reprod Med 1999;44:801–6.  PubMed
  275.  Godfrey EM, Whiteman MK, Curtis KM. Treatment of unscheduled bleeding in women using extended- or continuous-use combined hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:567–75. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 005 PubMed
  276.  Sulak PJ, Kuehl TJ, Coffee A, Willis S. Prospective analysis of occurrence and management of breakthrough bleeding during an extended oral contraceptive regimen. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;195:935–41. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. ajog. 2006. 02. 048 PubMed
  277.  Sulak PJ, Smith V, Coffee A, Witt I, Kuehl AL, Kuehl TJ. Frequency and management of breakthrough bleeding with continuous use of the transvaginal contraceptive ring: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2008;112:563–71. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181842071 PubMed
  278.  Kaneshiro B, Edelman A, Carlson N, Morgan K, Nichols M, Jensen J. Treatment of unscheduled bleeding in continuous oral contraceptive users with doxycycline: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:1141–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181e0119c PubMed
  279.  McCann MF, Potter LS. Progestin-only oral contraception: a comprehensive review. Contraception 1994;50(Suppl 1):S1–195. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/0010-7824(94)90124-4 PubMed
  280.  Arévalo M, Jennings V, Sinai I. Efficacy of a new method of family planning: the Standard Days Method. Contraception 2002;65:333–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(02)00288-3 PubMed
  281.  Arévalo M, Sinai I, Jennings V. A fixed formula to define the fertile window of the menstrual cycle as the basis of a simple method of natural family planning. Contraception 1999;60:357–60. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(99)00106-7 PubMed
  282.  Wilcox AJ, Dunson DB, Weinberg CR, Trussell J, Baird DD. Likelihood of conception with a single act of intercourse: providing benchmark rates for assessment of post-coital contraceptives. Contraception 2001;63:211–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(01)00191-3 PubMed
  283.  Cleland K, Zhu H, Goldstuck N, Cheng L, Trussell J. The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience. Hum Reprod 2012;27:1994–2000. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/des140 PubMed
  284.  Glasier AF, Cameron ST, Fine PM, et al. Ulipristal acetate versus levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a randomised non-inferiority trial and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010;375:555–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(10)60101-8 PubMed
  285.  Raymond E, Taylor D, Trussell J, Steiner MJ. Minimum effectiveness of the levonorgestrel regimen of emergency contraception. Contraception 2004;69:79–81. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2003. 09. 013 PubMed
  286.  Jatlaoui TC, Curtis KM. Safety and effectiveness data for emergency contraceptive pills among women with obesity: a systematic review. Contraception 2016. Epub May 24, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.05.002
  287.  Fine P, Mathé H, Ginde S, Cullins V, Morfesis J, Gainer E. Ulipristal acetate taken 48-120 hours after intercourse for emergency contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:257–63. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181c8e2aa PubMed
  288.  Dada OA, Godfrey EM, Piaggio G, von Hertzen H; Nigerian Network for Reproductive Health Research and Training. A randomized, double-blind, noninferiority study to compare two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigeria. Contraception 2010;82:373–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2010. 06. 004 PubMed
  289.  Ellertson C, Evans M, Ferden S, et al. Extending the time limit for starting the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception to 120 hours. Obstet Gynecol 2003;101:1168–71.
  290.  Ngai SW, Fan S, Li S, et al. A randomized trial to compare 24 h versus 12 h double dose regimen of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception. Hum Reprod 2005;20:307–11. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/deh583 PubMed
  291.  Rodrigues I, Grou F, Joly J. Effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills between 72 and 120 hours after unprotected sexual intercourse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:531–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1067/mob. 2001. 111102 PubMed
  292.  von Hertzen H, Piaggio G, Ding J, et al; WHO Research Group on Post-ovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation. Low dose mifepristone and two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a WHO multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2002;360:1803–10. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(02)11767-3 PubMed
  293.  Piaggio G, Kapp N, von Hertzen H. Effect on pregnancy rates of the delay in the administration of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a combined analysis of four WHO trials. Contraception 2011;84:35–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2010. 11. 010 PubMed
  294.  Rodriguez MI, Curtis KM, Gaffield ML, Jackson E, Kapp N. Advance supply of emergency contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:590–601. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 011 PubMed
  295.  Brache V, Cochon L, Duijkers IJ, et al. A prospective, randomized, pharmacodynamic study of quick-starting a desogestrel progestin-only pill following ulipristal acetate for emergency contraception. Hum Reprod 2015;30:2785–93.  PubMed
  296.  Cameron ST, Berger C, Michie L, Klipping C, Gemzell-Danielsson K. The effects on ovarian activity of ulipristal acetate when ‘quickstarting’ a combined oral contraceptive pill: a prospective, randomized, double-blind parallel-arm, placebo-controlled study. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1566–72. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/dev115 PubMed
  297.  Salcedo J, Rodriguez MI, Curtis KM, Kapp N. When can a woman resume or initiate contraception after taking emergency contraceptive pills? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:602–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 013 PubMed
  298.  Rodriguez MI, Godfrey EM, Warden M, Curtis KM. Prevention and management of nausea and vomiting with emergency contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:583–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 09. 031 PubMed
  299.  Creinin MD, Schlaff W, Archer DF, et al. Progesterone receptor modulator for emergency contraception: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:1089–97. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000239440. 02284. 45 PubMed
  300.  Farajkhoda T, Khoshbin A, Enjezab B, Bokaei M, Karimi Zarchi M. Assessment of two emergency contraceptive regimens in Iran: levonorgestrel versus the Yuzpe. Niger J Clin Pract 2009;12:450–2.  PubMed
  301.  Ho PC, Kwan MSW. A prospective randomized comparison of levonorgestrel with the Yuzpe regimen in post-coital contraception. Hum Reprod 1993;8:389–92.  PubMed
  302.  Arowojolu AO, Okewole IA, Adekunle AO. Comparative evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigerians. Contraception 2002;66:269–73. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0010-7824(02)00337-2 PubMed
  303.  Ragan RE, Rock RW, Buck HW. Metoclopramide pretreatment attenuates emergency contraceptive-associated nausea. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:330–3. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1067/mob. 2003. 90 PubMed
  304.  Raymond EG, Creinin MD, Barnhart KT, Lovvorn AE, Rountree RW, Trussell J. Meclizine for prevention of nausea associated with use of emergency contraceptive pills: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:271–7.  PubMed
  305.  Peterson HB. Sterilization. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:189–203. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/01. AOG. 0000298621. 98372. 62 PubMed
  306.  Peterson HB, Xia Z, Hughes JM, Wilcox LS, Tylor LR, Trussell J. The risk of pregnancy after tubal sterilization: findings from the U.S. Collaborative Review of Sterilization. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1161–8, discussion 1168–70. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0002-9378(96)70658-0 PubMed
  307.  Lawrie TA, Nardin JM, Kulier R, Boulvain M. Techniques for the interruption of tubal patency for female sterilisation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; (2):CD003034.  PubMed
  308.  Cleary TP, Tepper NK, Cwiak C, et al. Pregnancies after hysteroscopic sterilization: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:539–48. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. contraception. 2012. 08. 006 PubMed
  309.  Legendre G, Levaillant JM, Faivre E, Deffieux X, Gervaise A, Fernandez H. 3D ultrasound to assess the position of tubal sterilization microinserts. Hum Reprod 2011;26:2683–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humrep/der242 PubMed
  310.  Levy B, Levie MD, Childers ME. A summary of reported pregnancies after hysteroscopic sterilization. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2007;14:271–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jmig. 2006. 11. 007 PubMed
  311.  Veersema S, Vleugels MP, Moolenaar LM, Janssen CA, Brölmann HA. Unintended pregnancies after Essure sterilization in the Netherlands. Fertil Steril 2010;93:35–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. fertnstert. 2008. 10. 005 PubMed
  312.  Arjona JE, Miño M, Cordón J, Povedano B, Pelegrin B, Castelo-Branco C. Satisfaction and tolerance with office hysteroscopic tubal sterilization. Fertil Steril 2008;90:1182–6. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. fertnstert. 2007. 08. 007 PubMed
  313.  Duffy S, Marsh F, Rogerson L, et al. Female sterilisation: a cohort controlled comparative study of ESSURE versus laparoscopic sterilisation. BJOG 2005;112:1522–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1471-0528. 2005. 00726. x PubMed
  314.  Grosdemouge I, Engrand JB, Dhainault C, et al. Essure implants for tubal sterilisation in France [French]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil 2009;37:389–95. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. gyobfe. 2009. 03. 024 PubMed
  315.  Levie MD, Chudnoff SG. Prospective analysis of office-based hysteroscopic sterilization. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2006;13:98–101. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jmig. 2005. 11. 010 PubMed
  316.  Shavell VI, Abdallah ME, Diamond MP, Berman JM. Placement of a permanent birth control device at a university medical center. J Reprod Med 2009;54:218–22.  PubMed
  317.  American Urological Association. Vasectomy Guideline 2012. Available at https://www.auanet.org/common/pdf/education/clinical-guidance/Vasectomy.pdf.
  318.  Bedford JM, Zelikovsky G. Viability of spermatozoa in the human ejaculate after vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1979;32:460–3.  PubMed
  319.  Edwards IS. Earlier testing after vasectomy, based on the absence of motile sperm. Fertil Steril 1993;59:431–6.  PubMed
  320.  Jouannet P, David G. Evolution of the properties of semen immediately following vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1978;29:435–41.  PubMed
  321.  Labrecque M, Hays M, Chen-Mok M, Barone MA, Sokal D. Frequency and patterns of early recanalization after vasectomy. BMC Urol 2006;6:25. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1186/1471-2490-6-25 PubMed
  322.  Alderman PM. The lurking sperm. A review of failures in 8879 vasectomies performed by one physician. JAMA 1988;259:3142–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1001/jama. 1988. 03720210032024 PubMed
  323.  Black T, Francome C. The evolution of the Marie Stopes electrocautery no-scalpel vasectomy procedure. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2002;28:137–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1783/147118902101196270 PubMed
  324.  Davies AH, Sharp RJ, Cranston D, Mitchell RG. The long-term outcome following “special clearance” after vasectomy. Br J Urol 1990;66:211–2. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1464-410X. 1990. tb14907. x PubMed
  325.  Philp T, Guillebaud J, Budd D. Late failure of vasectomy after two documented analyses showing azoospermic semen. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984;289:77–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1136/bmj. 289. 6437. 77 PubMed
  326.  Philp T, Guillebaud J, Budd D. Complications of vasectomy: review of 16,000 patients. Br J Urol 1984;56:745–8. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1464-410X. 1984. tb06161. x PubMed
  327.  Belker AM, Sexter MS, Sweitzer SJ, Raff MJ. The high rate of noncompliance for post-vasectomy semen examination: medical and legal considerations. J Urol 1990;144:284–6.  PubMed
  328.  Chawla A, Bowles B, Zini A. Vasectomy follow-up: clinical significance of rare nonmotile sperm in postoperative semen analysis. Urology 2004;64:1212–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. urology. 2004. 07. 007 PubMed
  329.  Labrecque M, Bédard L, Laperrière L. Efficacy and complications associated with vasectomies in two clinics in the Quebec region [French]. Can Fam Physician 1998;44:1860–6.  PubMed
  330.  Labrecque M, Nazerali H, Mondor M, Fortin V, Nasution M. Effectiveness and complications associated with 2 vasectomy occlusion techniques. J Urol 2002;168:2495–8, discussion 2498. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0022-5347(05)64176-6 PubMed
  331.  Maatman TJ, Aldrin L, Carothers GG. Patient noncompliance after vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1997;68:552–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0015-0282(97)00251-3 PubMed
  332.  Dhar NB, Jones JS, Bhatt A, Babineau D. A prospective evaluation of the impact of scheduled follow-up appointments with compliance rates after vasectomy. BJU Int 2007;99:1094–7. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1111/j. 1464-410X. 2006. 06725. x PubMed
  333.  Hillard PJ, Berek JS, Barss VA, et al. Guidelines for women’s health care: A resource manual. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2007.
  334.  Shifren J, Gass M; NAMS Recommendations for Clinical Care of Midlife Women Working Group. The North American Menopause Society recommendation for clinical care of midlife women. Menopause 21;2014:1038–62. http://www.menopause.org/docs/default-source/2014/nams-recomm-for-clinical-care
  335.  te Velde ER, Pearson PL. The variability of female reproductive ageing. Hum Reprod Update 2002;8:141–54. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/humupd/8. 2. 141 PubMed
  336.  Broekmans FJ, Soules MR, Fauser BC. Ovarian aging: mechanisms and clinical consequences. Endocr Rev 2009;30:465–93. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1210/er. 2009-0006 PubMed
  337.  Wood JW. Fecundity and natural fertility in humans. Oxf Rev Reprod Biol 1989;11:61–109.  PubMed
  338.  Balasch J, Gratacós E. Delayed childbearing: effects on fertility and the outcome of pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2012;24:187–93. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/GCO. 0b013e3283517908 PubMed
  339.  Bateman BT, Simpson LL. Higher rate of stillbirth at the extremes of reproductive age: a large nationwide sample of deliveries in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194:840–5. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. ajog. 2005. 08. 038 PubMed
  340.  Berg CJ, Callaghan WM, Syverson C, Henderson Z. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1998 to 2005. Obstet Gynecol 2010;116:1302–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1097/AOG. 0b013e3181fdfb11 PubMed
  341.  Lidegaard Ø, Løkkegaard E, Svendsen AL, Agger C. Hormonal contraception and risk of venous thromboembolism: national follow-up study. BMJ 2009;339:b2890. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19679613
  342.  Lidegaard Ø, Nielsen LH, Skovlund CW, Skjeldestad FE, Løkkegaard E. Risk of venous thromboembolism from use of oral contraceptives containing different progestogens and oestrogen doses: Danish cohort study, 2001–9. BMJ 2011;343:d6423. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22027398/
  343.  Nightingale AL, Lawrenson RA, Simpson EL, Williams TJ, MacRae KD, Farmer RD. The effects of age, body mass index, smoking and general health on the risk of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2000;5:265–74. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/13625180008500402 PubMed
  344.  Slone D, Shapiro S, Kaufman DW, Rosenberg L, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD. Risk of myocardial infarction in relation to current and discontinued use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 1981;305:420–4. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1056/NEJM198108203050802 PubMed
  345.  Tanis BC, van den Bosch MA, Kemmeren JM, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1787–93. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1056/NEJMoa003216 PubMed
  346.  Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 1996;347:1713–27. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5 PubMed
  347.  Gill JK, Press MF, Patel AV, Bernstein L. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2006;17:1155–62. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1007/s10552-006-0056-0 PubMed
  348.  Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Persson I, Adami HO, Lund E. Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: The Norwegian-Swedish Women’s Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:1375–81.  PubMed
  349.  Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2002;346:2025–32. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1056/NEJMoa013202 PubMed
  350.  Newcomb PA, Longnecker MP, Storer BE, et al. Recent oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:525–32. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1007/BF00051885 PubMed
  351.  Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Rao RS, et al. Case-control study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:25–37. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/oxfordjournals. aje. a008654 PubMed
  352.  Rosenberg L, Zhang Y, Coogan PF, Strom BL, Palmer JR. A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and incident breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2009;169:473–9. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/aje/kwn360 PubMed
  353.  Shapiro S, Rosenberg L, Hoffman M, et al. Risk of breast cancer in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:396–403. http://dx. doi. org/10. 1093/oxfordjournals. aje. a010219 PubMed

 

 

TOP