Skip directly to search Skip directly to A to Z list Skip directly to navigation Skip directly to page options Skip directly to site content

Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities (2003)

Part III. References

Note: The bold item in parentheses indicated the citation number or the location of this reference listed in the MMWR version of this guideline.

  1. Simmons BP. Guideline for hospital environmental control. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, 1981.
  2. (270) Garner JS, Favero MS. Guideline for handwashing and hospital environmental control. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control, 1985. Document No. 99–1117 (Also available at Infect Control 1986; 7: 231–43.)
  3. (27) CDC. Guidelines for prevention of nosocomial pneumonia. MMWR 1997;46(No. RR-1):1–79.
  4. (34) CDC. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities. MMWR 1994;43(No. RR-13):1–132.
  5. (318) CDC. Recommendations for preventing the spread of vancomycin resistance. Recommendations of the Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). MMWR 1995;44(No. RR-12):1– 13.
  6. (36) Garner JS, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:53–80.
  7. (114) Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR, Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:247–80.
  8. (396) CDC. USPHS/IDSA guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 1999;48(No. RR-10):1–66.
  9. (37, Appendix; 5) CDC. CDC/IDSA/ASBMT guidelines for the prevention of opportunistic infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. MMWR 2000;49(No. RR-10):1–128.
  10. Garner JS. The CDC Hospital Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:160–2.
  11. Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. The inanimate environment. In: Rhame FS. Hospital Infections, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven, 1998;299–324.
  12. Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Environmental issues and nosocomial infections. In: Wenzel RP, ed. Prevention and control of nosocomial infections, 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins,1997;491–514.
  13. Greene VW. Microbiological contamination control in hospitals. Hospitals JAHA 1969;43:78–88.
  14. American Hospital Association. Hospital statistics, 2000 ed.Historical trends in utilization, personnel, and finances for selected years from 1946 through 1998 [Table]. Chicago, IL: Health Forum LLC, 2000;2–3.
  15. McKee B. Neither bust nor boom. Architecture 1998. Available at:[This link is no longer active: www.britannica.com/bcom/magazine/article/0,5744,39579,00.html]
  16. Croswell CL. Better, not bigger: construction costs soar on wings of patient demand, construction and design survey finds. Mod Healthc 1999;29:23–6, 28–34, 36–8.
  17. (9) Sarubbi FA Jr, Kopf BB, Wilson NO, McGinnis MR, Rutala WA. Increased recovery of Aspergillus flavus from respiratory specimens during hospital construction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982;125:33–8.
  18. (2) Arnow PM, Sadigh MC, Weil D, Chudy R. Endemic and epidemic aspergillosis associated with inhospital replication of Aspergillus organisms. J Infect Dis 1991;164:998–1002.
  19. (38) Flynn PM, Williams BG, Hethrington SV, Williams BF, Giannini MA, Pearson TA. Aspergillus terreus during hospital renovation [letter]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:363–5.
  20. (48) Weems JJ Jr, Davis BJ, Tablan OC, Kaufman L, Martone WJ. Construction activity: an independent risk factor for invasive aspergillosis and zygomycosis in patients with hematologic malignancy. Infect Control 1987;8:71–5.
  21. (10) Streifel AJ, Stevens PP, Rhame FS. In-hospital source of airborne Penicillium species spores. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25:1–4.
  22. Noskin GA, Stosor V, Cooper J, Peterson L. Recovery of vancomycin-resistant enterococci on fingertips and environmental surfaces. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:577–81.
  23. Manian FA, Meyer L, Jenne J. Clostridium difficile contamination of blood pressure cuffs: a call for a closer look at gloving practices in the era of universal precautions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:180–2.
  24. McFarland LV, Mulligan NE, Kwok RYY, et al. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 1989;320:204–10.
  25. Nath SK, Thomely JH, Kelly M, et al. A sustained outbreak of Clostridium difficile in a general hospital: persistence of a toxigenic clone in four units. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:382–9.
  26. (165) Johnson JT, Yu VL, Best MG, et al. Nosocomial legionellosis in surgical patients with head and neck cancer: implications for epidemiological reservoir and mode of transmission. Lancet 1985;2:298–300.
  27. Blatt SP, Parkinson MD, Pace E, et al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: aspiration as a primary mode of disease acquisition. Am J Med 1993;95:16–22
  28. Bert F, Maubec E, Bruneau B, Berry P, Lambert-Zechovsky N. Multi-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa associated with contaminated tap-water in a neurosurgery intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect 1998;39:53–62.
  29. Muyldermans G, de Smet F, Perrard D, et al. Neonatal infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa associated with a water-bath used to thaw fresh frozen plasma. J Hosp Infect 1998;39:309–14.
  30. Buttery JP, Alabaster SJ, Heine FG, et al. Multi-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa outbreak in a pediatric oncology ward related to bath toys. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:509–13.
  31. (224) Bolan G, Reingold AL, Carson LA, et al. Infections with Mycobacterium chelonae in patients receiving dialysis and using processed hemodialyzers. J Infect Dis 1985;152:1013–9.
  32. (225) Lowry PW, Beck-Sague CM, Bland LA, et al. Mycobacterium chelonae infection among patients receiving high-flux dialysis in a hemodialysis clinic in California. J Infect Dis 1990;161:85–90.
  33. Schaal KP. Medical and microbiological problems arising from airborne infection in hospitals. J Hosp Infect 1991;18 (Suppl A):451–9.
  34. Osterholm MT, Hedberg CW, Moore KA. Epidemiology of infectious diseases. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;156–67.
  35. (3) Streifel AJ. Design and maintenance of hospital ventilation systems and prevention of airborne nosocomial infections. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999:1211–21.
  36. Bodey GP, Vartivarian S. Aspergillosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1989;8:413–37.
  37. Latgé JP. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999;12:310–50.
  38. Derouin F. Special issue on aspergillosis. Pathol Biol 1990;42:625–736.
  39. Dixon DD, Walsh TJ. Human pathogenesis. In: Bennett JW, Klich MA, eds. Aspergillus, biology and industrial application. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann,1992;249–67.
  40. Kurup VP, Kumar A. Immunodiagnosis of aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1991;4:439–56.
  41. Latgé JP, Paris S, Sarfati J, et al. Infectivity of Aspergillus fumigatus. In: Vanden Bossche H, Stevens DA, Odds FC, eds Host-Fungus Interplay. Bethesda, MD: National Foundation for Infectious Diseases, 1997;99– 110.
  42. Schaffner A. Host defense in aspergillosis. In: Bennett E, Hay RJ, Peterson PK, eds. New Strategies in Fungal Disease. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Churchill Livingstone, 1992;98–112.
  43. Vanden Bossche H, Mackenzie DWR, Cauwenbergh G, eds. Aspergillus and aspergillosis. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1988.
  44. (82) Sherertz RJ, Belani A, Kramer BS, et al. Impact of air filtration on nosocomial Aspergillus infections: unique risk of bone marrow transplant recipients. Am J Med 1987;83:709–18.
  45. Young RC, Bennett JE, Vogel CL, Carbone PP, DeVita VT. Aspergillosis: the spectrum of the disease in 98 patients. Medicine 1970;49:147–73.
  46. Rhame FS. Lessons from the Roswell Park bone marrow transplant aspergillosis outbreak. Infect Control 1985;6:345–6.
  47. Rotsein C, Cummings KM, Tidings J, et al. An outbreak of invasive aspergillosis among allogeneic bone marrow transplants: a case-control study. Infect Control 1985;6:347–55.
  48. (83) Aisner J, Schimpff SC, Bennett JE, Young VM, Wiernik PH. Aspergillus infections in cancer patients: association with fireproofing materials in a new hospital. JAMA 1976;235:411–2.
  49. (64) Arnow PM, Anderson RL, Mainous PD, Smith EJ. Pulmonary aspergillosis during hospital renovation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;118:49–53.
  50. (61) Streifel AJ, Lauer JL, Vesley D, Juni B, Rhame FS. Aspergillus fumigatus and other thermotolerant fungi generated by hospital building demolition. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;46:375–8.
  51. Hopkins CC, Weber DJ, Rubin RH. Invasive aspergillosis infection: possible non-ward common source within the hospital environment. J Hosp Infect 1989;13:19–25.
  52. Denning DW. Invasive aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:781–805.
  53. Manuel RJ, Kibbler CC. The epidemiology and prevention of invasive aspergillosis. J Hosp Infect 1998;39:95–109.
  54. Kennedy HF, Simpson EM, Wilson N, Richardson MD, Michie JR. Aspergillus flavus endocarditis in a child with neuroblastoma. J Infect 1998;36:126–7.
  55. (75) McCarty JM, Flam MS, Pullen G, Jones R, Kassel SH. Outbreak of primary cutaneous aspergillosis related to intravenous arm boards. J Pediatr 1986;108(Pt.1):721–4.
  56. Goldberg B, Eversmann WW, Eitzen EM Jr. Invasive aspergillosis of the hand. J Hand Surg 1982;7:38–42.
  57. Grossman ME, Fithian EC, Behrens C, Bissinger J, Fracaro M, Neu HC. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in six leukemic children. J Am Acad Dermatol 1985;12:313–8.
  58. Panke TW, McManus AT, Spebar MJ. Infection of a burn wound by Aspergillus niger: gross appearance simulating ecthyma gangrenosa. Am J Clin Pathol 1979;72:230–2.
  59. Fraser DW, Ward JL, Ajello L, Plikaytis BD. Aspergillosis and other systemic mycoses: the growing problem. JAMA 1979;242:1631–5.
  60. Iwen PC, Reed EC, Armitage JO, et al. Nosocomial invasive aspergillosis in lymphoma patients treated with bone marrow or peripheral stem cell transplants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:131–9.
  61. Cordonnier C, Bernaudin JF, Bierling P, Huet Y, Vernant JP. Pulmonary complications occurring after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: a study of 130 consecutively transplanted patients. Cancer 1986;58: 1047–54.
  62. (76) Klimowski LL, Rotstein C, Cummings KM. Incidence of nosocomial aspergillosis in patients with leukemia over a twenty-year period. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1989;10:299–305.
  63. (79) Walmsley S, Devi S, King S, Schneider R, Richardson S, Ford-Jones L. Invasive Aspergillus infections in a pediatric hospital: a ten-year review. Pediatr Infect Dis 1993;12:673–82.
  64. (57) Pannuti CS, Gingrich RD, Pfaller MA, Wenzel RP. Nosocomial pneumonia in adult patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation: a 9-year study. J Clin Oncol 1991;9:77–84.
  65. (58) Wingard JR, Beals SU, Santos GW, Mertz WG, Saral R. Aspergillus infections in bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 1987;2:175–81.
  66. Humphreys H, Johnson EM, Warnock DW, Willatts SM, Winter RJ, Speller DCE. An outbreak of aspergillosis in a general ITU. J Hosp Infect 1991;18:167–77.
  67. Sessa A, Meroni M, Battini G, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of Aspergillus fumigatus infection among patients in a renal unit? Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996;11:1322–4.
  68. (134) Anderson K, Morris G, Kennedy H, et al. Aspergillosis in immunocompromised pediatric patients: associations with building hygiene, design, and indoor air. Thorax 1996;51:256–61.
  69. (39) Tabbara KF, al Jabarti A. Hospital construction-associated outbreak of ocular aspergillosis after cataract surgery. Ophthalmology 1998;105:522–26.
  70. Ferre A, Domingo P, Alonso C, Franquet T, Gurgui M, Verger G. Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis: A study of 33 cases. Med Clin (Barc) 1998;110:421–5. (Spanish)
  71. Ewig S, Paar WD, Pakos E et al. Nosocomial ventilator-associated pneumonias caused by Aspergillus fumigatus in non-immunosuppressed, non-neutropenic patients. Pneumologie 1998;52:85–90. (German)
  72. Singer S, Singer D, Ruchel R, Mergeryan H, Schmidt U, Harms K. Outbreak of systemic aspergillosis in a neonatal intensive care unit. Mycoses 1998;41:223–7.
  73. (88) Allo MD, Miller J, Townsend T, Tan C. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis associated with Hickman intravenous catheters. N Engl J Med 1987;317:1105–8.
  74. Boon AP, Adams DH, Buckels J, McMaster P. Cerebral aspergillosis in liver transplantation. J Clin Pathol 1990;43:114–8.
  75. Pla MP, Berenguer J, Arzuaga JA, Banares R, Polo JR, Bouza E. Surgical wound infection by Aspergillus fumigatus in liver transplant recipients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1992;15:703–6.
  76. Kanj SS, Welty-Wolf K, Madden J, et al. Fungal infections in lung and heart-lung transplant recipients: report of 9 cases and review of the literature. Medicine 1996;75:142–56.
  77. (77) Pfundstein J. Aspergillus infection among solid organ transplant recipients: a case study. J Transpl Coord 1997;7:187–9.
  78. Brenier-Pinchart MP, Lebeau B, Devouassoux G, et al. Aspergillus and lung transplant recipients: a mycologic and molecular epidemiologic study. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998;17:972–9.
  79. (59) Gerson SL, Talbot GH, Hurwitz S, Strom B, Lusk EJ, Cassileth PA. Prolonged granulocytopenia: the major risk factor for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with leukemia. Ann Intern Med 1984;100:345–51.
  80. Weber SF, Peacock JE Jr, Do KA, Cruz JM, Powell BL, Capizzi RL. Interaction of granulocytopenia and construction activity as risk factors for nosocomial invasive filamentous fungal disease in patients with hematologic disorders. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:235–42.
  81. Rees JR, Pinner RW, Hajjeh RA, Brandt ME, Reingold AL. The epidemiological features of invasive mycotic infections in the San Francisco Bay area, 1992–1993: results of population-based laboratory active surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27:1138–47.
  82. McNeil MM, Nash SL, Hajjeh RA, Conn LA, Plikaytis BD. Trends in mortality due to invasive mycoses in the United States [abstract]. In: Program & Abstracts of the International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases. Atlanta, GA, 1998. Abstract No. S7.3.
  83. Wald A, Leisenring W, van Burik JA, Bowden RA. Epidemiology of Aspergillus infections in a large cohort of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. J Infect Dis 1997;175:1459–66.
  84. Gurwith MJ, Stinson EB, Remington JS. Aspergillus infection complicating cardiac transplantation: Report of five cases. Arch Intern Med 1971;128:541–5.
  85. Weiland D, Ferguson RM, Peterson PK, Snover DC, Simmons RL, Najarian JS. Aspergillosis in 25 renal transplant patients. Ann Surg 1983;198:622–9.
  86. Hofflin JM, Potasman I, Baldwin JC, Oyster PE, Stinson EB, Remington JS. Infectious complications in heart transplant recipients receiving cyclosporine and corticosteroids. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:209–16.
  87. Schulman LL, Smith CR, Drusin R, Rose EA, Enson Y, Reemtsma K. Respiratory complications of cardiac transplantation. Am J Med Sci 1988;296:1–10.
  88. Gustafson TL, Schaffner W, Lavely GB, Stratton CW, Johnson HK, Hutcheson RH. Invasive aspergillosis in renal transplant recipients: correlation with corticosteroid therapy. J Infect Dis 1983;148:230–8.
  89. Denning DW, Stevens DA. Antifungal and surgical treatment of invasive aspergillosis: review of 2121 published cases. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:1147–201.
  90. Weinberger M, Elattaar I, Marshall D, et al. Patterns of infection in patients with aplastic anemia and the emergence of Aspergillus as a major cause of death. Medicine 1992;71:24–43.
  91. Noble WC, Clayton YM. Fungi in the air of hospital wards. J Gen Microbiol 1963;32:397–402.
  92. Solomon WR, Burge HP, Boise JR. Airborne Aspergillus fumigatus levels outside and within a large clinical center. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1978;62:56–60.
  93. Streifel AJ, Rhame FS. Hospital air filamentous fungal spore and particle counts in a specially designed hospital. In: Indoor Air ‘93: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Indoor Air and Climate, Vol. 4. Helsinki, Finland:161–5.
  94. (40) Rhame FS, Streifel AJ, Kersey JH Jr, McGlave PB. Extrinsic risk factors for pneumonia in the patient at high risk for infection. Am J Med 1984;76(5A):42–52.
  95. (78) Rhame FS, Streifel A, Stevens P, et al. Endemic Aspergillus airborne spore levels are a major risk factor for aspergillosis in bone marrow transplant patients [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 25th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1985. Abstract No. 147.
  96. (60) Lentino JR, Rosenkranz MA, Michaels JA, Kurup VP, Rose HD, Rytel MW. Nosocomial aspergillosis: a retrospective review of airborne disease secondary to road construction and contaminated air conditioners. Am J Epidemiol 1982;116:430–7.
  97. (49) Krasinski K, Holzman RS, Hanna B, Greco MA, Graff M, Bhogal M. Nosocomial fungal infection during hospital renovation. Infect Control 1985;6:278–82.
  98. (29) Gage AA, Dean DC, Schimert G, Minsley N. Aspergillus infection after cardiac surgery. Arch Surg 1970;101:384–87.
  99. (95) Siegler L, Kennedy MJ. Aspergillus, Fusarium, and other opportunistic moniliaceous fungi. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, Tenover FC, Yolken RH, eds. Manual of clinical microbiology, 7th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1999;1212–41.
  100. (70) Overberger PA, Wadowsky RM, Schaper MM. Evaluation of airborne particulates and fungi during hospital renovation. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1995;56:706–12.
  101. (96) Breton P, Germaud P, Morin O, Audoin AF, Milpied N, Harousseau JL. Unusual pulmonary mycoses in patients with hematologic disease. Rev Pneumol Clin 1998;54:253–7. (French)
  102. (97) Guarro J, Nucci M, Akiti T, Gené J, Barreiro MDGC, Gonçalves RT. Fungemia due to Fusarium sacchari in an immunosuppressed patient. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:419–21.
  103. (98) Burton JR, Zachery JB, Bessin R, et al. Aspergillosis in four renal transplant patients: diagnosis and effective treatment with amphotericin B. Ann Intern Med 1972;77:383–8.
  104. (80) Kyriakides GK, Zinneman HHA, Hall WH, et al. Immunologic monitoring and aspergillosis in renal transplant patients. Am J Surg 1976;131:246–52.
  105. Simmons RB, Price DL, Noble JA, Crow SA, Ahearn DG. Fungal colonization of air filters from hospitals. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1997;58:900–4.
  106. (4) Pittet D, Huguenin T, Dharan S, et al. Unusual case of lethal pulmonary aspergillosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154(2 Pt 1):541–4.
  107. (104) Mahoney DH Jr, Steuber CP, Starling KA, Barrett FF, Goldberg J, Fernbach DJ. An outbreak of aspergillosis in children with acute leukemia. J Pediatr 1979;95:70–2.
  108. Ruutu P, Valtonen V, Tiitanen L, et al. An outbreak of invasive aspergillosis in a hematologic unit. Scand J Infect Dis 1987;19:347–51.
  109. (51) Walsh TJ, Dixon DM. Nosocomial aspergillosis: environmental microbiology, hospital epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Eur J Epidemiol 1989;5:131–42.
  110. Buffington J, Reporter R, Lasker BA, et al. Investigation of an epidemic of invasive aspergillosis: utility of molecular typing with the use of random amplified polymorphic DNA probes. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:386–93.
  111. 44) Gerson SL, Parker P, Jacobs MR, Creger R, Lazarus HM. Aspergillosis due to carpet contamination [letter]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:221–3.
  112. (84) Fox BC, Chamberlin L, Kulich P, Rae EJ, Webster LR. Heavy contamination of operating room air by Penicillium species: identification of the source and attempts at decontamination. Am J Infect Control 1990;18:300–6.
  113. Chazalet V, Debeaupuis J-P, Sarfati J, et al. Molecular typing of environmental and patient isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus from various hospital settings. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:1494–500.
  114. Loudon KW, Coke AP, Burnie JP, Shaw AJ, Oppenheim BA, Morris CQ. Kitchens as a source of Aspergillus niger infection. J Hosp Infect 1996;32:191–8.
  115. (81) Abzug MJ, Gardner S, Glode MP, Cymanski M, Roe MH, Odom LF. Heliport-associated nosocomial mucormycoses [letter]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:325–6.
  116. Alvarez M, Lopez Ponga B, Rayon C, et al. Nosocomial outbreak caused by Scedosporium prolificans (inflatum): four fatal cases in leukemic patients. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:3290–5.
  117. (89) Schleupner CJ, Hamilton JR. A pseudoepidemic of pulmonary fungal infections related to fiberoptic bronchoscopy. Infect Control 1980;1:38–42.
  118. Jackson L, Klotz SA, Normand RE. A pseudoepidemic of Sporothrix cyanescens pneumonia occurring during renovation of a bronchoscopy suite. J Med Vet Mycol 1990;28:455–9.
  119. (30) Vargo JA, Ginsberg MM, Mizrahi M. Human infestation by the pigeon mite: a case report. Am J Infect Control 1983;11:24–5.
  120. American Institute of Architects. Guidelines for design and construction of hospital and health care facilities, 2001. Washington, DC: American Institute of Architects Press, 2001.
  121. Diamond RD. Cryptococcus neoformans. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th Ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2707–18.
  122. Deepe GS Jr. Histoplasma capsulatum. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. eds. Principles and practice of Infectious Diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2718–33.
  123. Brodsky AL, Gregg MB, Loewenstein MS, et al. Outbreak of histoplasmosis associated with the 1970 earth day activities. Am J Med 1973;54:333–42.
  124. Ward JI, Weeks M, Allen D, et al. Acute histoplasmosis: clinical, epidemiologic, and serologic findings of an outbreak associated with exposure to a fallen tree. Am J Med 1979;66:587–95.
  125. Galgiani JN. Coccidioidomycoses. In: Remington JS, Swartz MN, eds. Current clinical topics in infectious disease. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, 1997;188–204.
  126. (111) Gerberding JL. Nosocomial transmission of opportunistic infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:574–7.
  127. Hughes WT. Natural mode of acquisition for de novo infection with Pneumocystis carinii. J Infect Dis 1982;145:842–8.
  128. Olsson M, Sukura A, Lindberg LA, et al. Detections of Pneumocystis carinii DNA by filtration of air. Scand J Infect Dis 1996;28:279–82.
  129. Bartlett MS, Vermund SH, Jacobs R, et al. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA in air samples: likely environmental risk to susceptible persons. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:2511–3.
  130. Lundgren B, Elvin K, Rothman LP, Ljungstrom I, Lidman C, Lundgren JD. Transmission of Pneumocystis carinii from patients to hospital staff. Thorax 1997;52:422–4.
  131. (112) Vargas SL, Ponce CA, Gigliotti F, et al. Transmission of Pneumocystis carinii DNA from a patient with P. carinii pneumonia to immunocompetent contact health care workers. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:1536–8.
  132. (113) Walzer PD. Pneumocystis carinii. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2781–95.
  133. CDC. Screening for tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in high-risk populations: recommendations of the Advisory Committee for Elimination of Tuberculosis. MMWR 1995;44(No. RR-11):18–34.
  134. CDC. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. MMWR 2000;49(No. RR­ 6):1–51.
  135. D’Agata EMC, Wise S, Stewart A, Lefkowitz LB Jr. Nosocomial transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from an extrapulmonary site. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:10–2.
  136. CDC. Summary of notifiable diseases, United States 2001. MMWR 2001;50(53):1–108.
  137. Haas DW. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2576–607.
  138. American Public Health Association. Tuberculosis. In: Chin J, ed. Control of communicable diseases manual, 17th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association Press, 2000:521–30.
  139. American Thoracic Society/CDC. Treatment of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;167:603– 62.
  140. Matlow AG, Jarrison A, Monteath A, Roach P, Balfe JW. Nosocomial transmission of tuberculosis (TB) associated with care of an infant with peritoneal TB. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:222–3.
  141. Jensen PA. Airborne Mycobacterium spp. In: Hurst CJ, Knudsen GR, McInerney MJ, Stetzenbach LD, Walter MV, eds. Manual of environmental microbiology. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1997;676–81.
  142. (41) Wells WF. Aerodynamics of droplet nuclei. In: Airborne contagion and air hygiene. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,1955;13–9.
  143. White A. Relation between quantitative nasal cultures and dissemination of staphylococci. J Lab Clin Med 1961;58:273–7.
  144. Huijsmans-Evers AG. Results of routine tests for the detection of dispersers of Staphylococcus aureus. Arch Chir Neerl 1978;30:141–50.
  145. Boyce JM, Opal SM, Potter-Bynoe G, Medeiros AA. Spread of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a hospital after exposure to a healthcare worker with chronic sinusitis. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:496–504.
  146. Hambraeus A, Sanderson HF. The control of ventilation of airborne bacterial transfer between hospital patients, and its assessment by means of a particle tracer. 3. Studies with an airborne-particle tracer in an isolation ward for burned patients. J Hyg (Lond) 1972;70:299–312.
  147. Nakashima AK, Allen JR, Martone WJ, et al. Epidemic bullous impetigo in a nursery due to a nasal carrier of Staphylococcus aureus: role of epidemiology and control measures. Infect Control 1984;5:326–31.
  148. Bethune DW, Blowers R, Parker M, Pask EA. Dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus by patients and surgical staff. Lancet 1965;1:480–3.
  149. Sherertz RJ, Reagan DR, Hampton KD, et al. A cloud adult: the Staphylococcus aureus — virus interaction revisited. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:539–47.
  150. Gryska PF, O’Dea AE. Postoperative streptococcal wound infection: the anatomy of an epidemic. JAMA 1970;213:1189–91.
  151. Stamm WE, Feeley JC, Facklam RR. Wound infection due to group A Streptococcus traced to a vaginal carrier. J Infect Dis 1978;138:287–92.
  152. Berkelman RL, Martin D, Graham DR. Streptococcal wound infection caused by a vaginal carrier. JAMA 1982;247:2680–2.
  153. McIntyre DM. An epidemic of Streptococcus pyrogenes puerpural and postoperative sepsis with an unusual site — the anus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1968;101:308–14.
  154. Gaynes RP, Horan TC. Surveillance of nosocomial infections. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;1285–318.
  155. Wenzel RP, Veazey JM Jr, Townsend TR. Role of the inanimate environment in hospital-acquired infections. In: Cundy KR, Ball W, eds. Infection control in healthcare facilities: microbiological surveillance. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press, 1977;71–98.
  156. Mortimer EA Jr, Wolinsky E, Gonzaga AJ, Rammelkamp CH Jr. Role of airborne transmission in staphylococcal infections. Br Med J 1966;5483:319–22.
  157. Youngs ER, Roberts C, Kramer JM, Gilbert RJ. Dissemination of Bacillus cereus in a maternity unit. J Infect 1985;10:228–32.
  158. Richardson AJ, Rothburn MM, Roberts C. Pseudo-outbreak of Bacillus species: related to fiberoptic bronchoscopy. J Hosp Infect 1986;7:208–10.
  159. Bryce EA, Smith JA, Tweeddale M, Andruschak BJ, Maxwell MR. Dissemination of Bacillus cereus in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:459–62.
  160. Lie PY-F, Ke S-C, Chen S-L. Use of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis to investigate a pseudo-outbreak of Bacillus cereus in a pediatric unit. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:1533–5.
  161. McDonald LC, Walker M, Carson L, et al. Outbreak of Acinetobacter spp. bloodstream infections in a nursery associated with contaminated aerosols and air conditioners. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:716–22.
  162. Leclair JM, Zaia JA, Levin MJ, Congdon RG, Goldmann DA. Airborne transmission of chickenpox in a hospital. N Engl J Med 1980;302:450–3.
  163. Gustafson TL, Lavely GB, Brawner ERJ, Hutcheson RHJ, Wright PF, Schaffner W. An outbreak of airborne nosocomial varicella. Pediatrics 1982;70:550–6.
  164. Josephson A, Gombert ME. Airborne transmission of nosocomial varicella from localized zoster. J Infect Dis 1988;158:238–41.
  165. Sawyer MJ, Chamberlin CJ, Wu YN, Aintablian N, Wallace MR. Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in air samples from hospital rooms. J Infect Dis 1994;169:91–4.
  166. Menkhaus NA, Lamphear B, Linnemann CC. Airborne transmission of varicella-zoster virus in hospitals. Lancet 1990;226:1315.
  167. CDC. Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP). MMWR 1996;45(No. RR-11):1–36.
  168. Davis RM, Orenstein WA, Frank JAJ, et al. Transmission of measles in medical settings: 1980 through 1984. JAMA 1986;255:1295–8.
  169. Watkins NM, Smith RPJ, St Germain DL, Mackay DN. Measles infection in a hopsital setting. Am J Infect Control 1987;15:201–6.
  170. Revera ME, Mason WH, Ross LA, Wright HT Jr. Nosocomial measles infection in a pediatric hospital during a community-wide epidemic. J Pediatr 1991;119:183–6.
  171. Atkinson WL, Markowitz LE, Adams NC, Seastrom GR. Transmission of measles in medical settings — United States, 1985–1989. Am J Med 1991;91(suppl):320S–4S.
  172. Patriarca PA, Weber JA, Parker RA, et al. Efficacy of influenza vaccine in nursing homes: reduction in illness and complications during influenza A (H3N2) epidemics. JAMA 1985;253:1136–9.
  173. Arden NH, Patriarca PA, Fasano MB, et al. The roles of vaccination and amantadine prophylaxis in controlling an outbreak of influenza A (H3N2) in a nursing home. Arch Intern Med 1988;148:865–8.
  174. CDC. Influenza A outbreaks — Louisiana, August 1993. MMWR 1993;42:132–4.
  175. Drinka PJ, Gravenstein S, Krause P, Schilling M, Miller BA, Shult P. Outbreaks of influenza A and B in a highly immunized nursing home population. J Family Practice 1997;45:509–14.
  176. Schilling M, Povinelli L, Krause P, et al. Efficacy of zanamivir for chemoprophylaxis of nursing home influenza outbreaks. Vaccine 1998;16:1771–4.
  177. Hall CB. Nosocomial viral infections: perennial weeds on pediatric wards. Am J Med 1981;70:670–6.
  178. Whimbey E, Elting LS, Couch RB, et al. Influenza A virus infections among hospitalized adult bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transpl 1994;13:437–40.
  179. Evans ME, Hall KL, Berry SE. Influenza control in acute care hospitals. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:357–62.
  180. Munoz FM, Campbell JR, Atmar RL, et al. Influenza A virus outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:811–5.
  181. Alford RH, Kasel JA, Gerone PJ, Knight V. Human influenza resulting from aerosol inhalation. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1966;122:800–4.
  182. Moser MR, Bender TR, Margolis HS, Noble GR, Kendal AP, Ritter DG. An outbreak of influenza aboard a commercial airliner. Am J Epidemiol 1979;110:1–6.
  183. Chanock RW, Kim HW, Vargosko AJ, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus 1: virus recovery and other observations during 1960 — outbreak of bronchiolitis, pneumonia, and other minor respiratory illness in children. JAMA 1961;176:647–53.
  184. Gardner DS, Court SDM, Brocklebank JT, et al. Virus cross-infection in paediatric wards. Br Med J 1973;2:571–75.
  185. Sawyer LA, Murphy JJ, Kaplan JE, et al. 25–30 nm virus particle associated with a hospital outbreak of acute gastroenteritis with evidence for airborne transmission. Am J Epidemiol 1988;127:1261–71.
  186. Baxby D. Poxviruses. In: Belshe RB, ed. Textbook of human virology, 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book, 1991;930–46.
  187. Neff JM. Variola (smallpox) and monkeypox viruses. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R. eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;1555–6.
  188. Wehrle PF, Posch J, Richter KH, Henderson DA. An airborne outbreak of smallpox in a German hospital and its significance with respect to other recent outbreaks in Europe. Bull WHO 1970;43:669–79.
  189. Hawkes N. Science in Europe: smallpox death in Britain challenges presumption of laboratory safety. Science 1979;203:855–6.
  190. Eickhoff TC. Airborne nosocomial infection: a contemporary perspective. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:663–72.
  191. Nuzum EO, Rossi CA, Stephenson EH, LeDuc JW. Aerosol tranmission of Hantaan and related viruses to laboratory rats. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1988;38:636-40.
  192. CDC. Hantavirus infection — southwestern United States: Interim recommendations for risk reduction. CDC. MMWR 1993;42(No. RR-11):1–13.
  193. Vitek CR, Breiman RF, Ksiazek TG, et al. Evidence against person-to-person transmission of hantavirus to health care workers. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22:824–6.
  194. Wells RM, Young J, Williams RJ, et al. Hantavirus transmission in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 1997;3:361–5.
  195. Chaparro J, Vega J, Terry W, et al. Assessment of person-to-person transmission of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in a Chilean hospital setting. J Hosp Infect 1998;40:281–5.
  196. Nolte KB, Foucar K, Richmond JY. Hantaviral biosafety issues in the autopsy room and laboratory: Concerns and recommendations. Hum Pathol 1996;27:1253–4.
  197. Stephenson EH, Larson EW, Dominik JW. Effect of environmental factors on aerosol-induced Lassa virus infection. J Med Virol 1984;14:295–303.
  198. Monath TP. Lassa fever: review of epidemiology and epizootiology. Bull World Health Organ 1975;52: 577–92.
  199. Monath TP, Casals J. Diagnosis of Lassa fever and the isolation and management of patients. Bull WHO 1975;52:707–15.
  200. Zweighaft RM, Fraser DW, Hattwick MA, et al. Lassa fever: response to an imported case. N Engl J Med 1977;297:803–7.
  201. Cooper CB, Gransden WR, Webster M, et al. A case of Lassa fever: experience at St Thomas’ hospital. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1982;285:1003–5.
  202. (108) Monath TP. Yellow fever: Victor, victoria? Conqueror, conquest? Epidemics and research in the last forty years and prospects for the future. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991;45:1–43.
  203. (109) CDC. Update: management of patients with suspected viral hemorrhagic fever — United States. MMWR 1995;44:475–9.
  204. (110) Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Risks and prevention of nosocomial transmission rare zoonotic diseases. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:446–56.
  205. Decker MD, Schaffner W. Nosocomial diseases of healthcare workers spread by the airborne or contact routes (other than tuberculosis). In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;1101–26.
  206. (46) Fridkin SK, Kremer FB, Bland LA, Padhye A, McNeil MM, Jarvis WR. Acremonium kiliense endophthalmitis that occurred after cataract extraction in an ambulatory surgical center and was traced to an environmental reservoir. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22:222–7.
  207. Loeb M, Wilcox L, Thornley D, et al. Bacillus species pseudobacteremia following hospital construction. Can J Infect Control 1995;10:37–40.
  208. Olle-Goig JE, Canela-Soler J. An outbreak of Brucella melitensis infection by airborne transmission among laboratory workers. Am J Public Health 1987;77:335–8.
  209. Kiel FW, Khan MY. Brucellosis among hospital employees in Saudi Arabia. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:268–72.
  210. Staszkiewicz J, Lewis CM, Colville J, Zervos M, Band J. Outbreak of Brucella melitensis among microbiology laboratory workers in a community hospital. J Clin Microbiol 1991;20:287–90.
  211. Fiori PL, Mastrandrea S, Rappelli P, Cappuccinelli P. Brucella abortus infection acquired in microbiology laboratories. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:2005–6.
  212. Spinelli JS, Ascher MS, Brooks DL, et al. Q fever crisis in San Francisco: controlling a sheep zoonosis in a lab animal facility. Lab Anim 1981;10:29–38.
  213. (Table 1) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). HVAC components, functions and malfunctions (topic 8-4). In: Industrial ventilation: a Manual of recommended practice, 24th ed. Cincinnati, OH : American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., 2001.
  214. (35) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality. ASHRAE Standard 62-1999. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE 1999;1–27.
  215. (133) Burroughs HEB. Sick building syndrome: fact, fiction, or facility? In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Health Care Organizations, 1997;3–13.
  216. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc. Gravimetric and dust spot procedures for testing air cleaning devices used in general ventilation for removing particulate matter. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 52–1–1999. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE 1999;1–25.
  217. Robinson TJ, Ouellet AE. Filters and filtration. ASHRAE J 1999;65–70.
  218. Dryden GE, Dryden SR, Brown DG, Schatzle KC, Godzeski C. Performance of bacteria filters. Respir Care 1980;25:1127–35.
  219. (33) Rutala WA, Jones SM, Worthington JM, Reist PC, Weber DJ. Efficacy of portable filtration units in reducing aerosolized particles in the size range of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:391–8.
  220. (5) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation and U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. Building air quality: a guide for building owners and facilities managers. Washington, DC: USEPA, 1991. EPA/400/1-91/033, or NIOSH 91-114. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/niosh/baqtoc.html]
  221. (28) Ko G, Burge HA, Muileberg M, Rudnick S, First M. Survival of mycobacteria on HEPA filter material. J Am Biol Safety Assoc 1998;3:65–78.
  222. (6) Rao CY, Burge HA, Chang JCS. Review of quantitative standards and guidelines for fungi in indoor air. J Air & Waste Manage Assoc 1996;46:899–906.
  223. Riley RL, Wells WF, Mills CC, Nyka W, McLean RL. Air hygiene in tuberculosis: quantitative studies of infectivity and control in a pilot ward. Am Rev Tuberc 1957;75:420–31.
  224. Riley RL, Nardell EA. Cleaning the air: the theory and application of UV air disinfection. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139:1286–94.
  225. Riley RL. Ultraviolet air disinfection for control of respiratory contagion. In: Kundsin RB, ed. Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution.New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988;174–97.
  226. Willmon TL, Hollaender A, Langmuir AD. Studies of the control of acute respiratory diseases among naval recruits. I. A review of a four-year experience with ultraviolet irradiation and dust suppressive measures, 1943 to 1947. Am J Hyg 1948;48:227–32.
  227. Wells WF, Wells MW, Wilder TS. The environmental control of epidemic contagion. I. An epidemiologic study of radiant disinfection of air in day schools. Am J Hyg 1942;35:97–121.
  228. Perkins JE, Bahlke AM, Silverman HF. Effect of ultra-violet irradiation of classrooms on spread of measles in large rural central schools. Am J Public Health Nations Health 1947;37:529–37.
  229. Nagy R. Application and measurement of ultraviolet radiation. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1964;25:274–81.
  230. Illuminating Engineering Society. IES Lighting handbook, 4th ed. New York, NY: Illuminating Engineering Society, 1966;25–7.
  231. Riley RL. Indoor spread of respiratory infection by recirculation of air. Bull Physiopathol Respir 1979;15:699–705.
  232. Menzies D, Pasztor J, Rand T, Bourbeau J. Germicidal ultraviolet irradiation in air conditioning systems: effect on office worker health and wellbeing — a pilot study. Occup Environ Med 1999;56:397–402.
  233. Riley RL, Permutt S. Room air disinfection by ultraviolet irradiation of upper air: air mixing and germicidal effectiveness. Arch Environ Health 1971;22:208–19.
  234. Nicas M, Miller SL. A multi-zone model evaluation of the efficacy of upper-room air ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 1999;14:317–28.
  235. Kethley TW, Branch K. Ultraviolet lamps for room air disinfection: effect of sampling location and particle size of bacterial aerosol. Arch Environ Health 1972;25:205–14.
  236. Riley RL, Knight M, Middlebrook G. Ultraviolet susceptibility of BCG and virulent tubercle bacilli. Am Rev Respir Dis 1976;113:413–8.
  237. Collins FM. Relative susceptibility of acid-fast and non-acid-fast bacteria to ultraviolet light. Appl Microbiol 1971;21:411–3.
  238. Riley RL, Permutt S, Kaufman JE. Convection, air mixing, and ultraviolet air disinfection in rooms. Arch Environ Health 1971;22:200–7.
  239. Nardell EA. Fans, filters, or rays? Pros and cons of the current environmental tuberculosis control technologies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:681–5.
  240. ECRI. Health devices evaluation of mobile high efficiency filter air cleaners (MHEFACs). ECRI 1997;26:367–88.
  241. (103) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. 1999 ASHRAE Handbook: heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning applications. Chapter 7: Health care facilities. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE, 1999;7.1–7.13.
  242. Elovitz KM. Understanding what humidity does and why. ASHRAE J 1999;April:84–90.
  243. Orme I. Patient impact. In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations: Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Publications, 1997:43–52.
  244. Gundermann KO. Spread of microorganisms by air-conditioning systems — especially in hospitals. Ann NY Acad Sci 1980;209–17.
  245. Arundel AV, Sterling EM, Biggin JH, Sterling TD. Indirect health effects of relative humidity in indoor environments. Environ Health Perspect 1986;65:351–61.
  246. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ventilation and air quality in offices. Washington, DC: EPA Document #402-F-94-003, Revision: July 1990.
  247. Hermans RD, Streifel AJ. Ventilation design. In: Bierbaum PJ, Lippman M, eds. Workshop on engineering controls for preventing airborne infections in workers in health care and related facilities. Cincinnatti, OH: NIOSH and CDC, 1993;107–46.
  248. Memarzadeh F, Jiang J. A methodology for minimizing risk from airborne organisms in hospital isolation rooms. ASHRAE Trans 2000;106:731–47.
  249. (11) Hansen W. The need for an integrated indoor air quality program. In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Publications, 1997;xiii – xviii.
  250. (12) Bartley J. Ventilation. In: Pfeiffer J, ed. APIC Text of infection control and epidemiology. Washington, DC; Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc (APIC), 2000;77.1–77.11.
  251. Levine AS, Siegel SE, Schreiber AD, et al. Protected environments and prophylactic antibiotics. N Engl J Med 1973;288:477–483.
  252. (90) Denning DW, Clemons KV, Hanson LH, Stevens DA. Restriction endonuclease analysis of total cellular DNA of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates of geographically and epidemiologically diverse origin. J Infect Dis 1990;162:1151–8.
  253. Rhame FS. Prevention of nosocomial aspergillosis. J Hosp Infect 1991;18 (Suppl. A):466–72.
  254. (85) Barnes RA, Rogers TR. Control of an outbreak of nosocomial aspergillosis by laminar air-flow isolation. J Hosp Infect 1989;14:89–94.
  255. Roy M-C. The operating theater: a special environmental area. In: Wenzel RP, ed. Prevention and control of nosocomial infections, 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: William & Wilkins, 1997;515–38.
  256. Pavelchak N, DePersis RP, London M, et al. Identification of factors that disrupt negative air pressurization of respiratory isolation rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:191–5.
  257. Anderson K. Pseudomonas pyocyanea disseminated from an air cooling apparatus. Med J Austr 1959;529–32.
  258. Shaffer JG, McDade JJ. Airborne Staphylococcus aureus: a possible source in air control equipment. Arch Environ Health 1963;5:547–51.
  259. Morey PR. Building-related illness with a focus on fungal issues. In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Publications, 1997;15–25.
  260. Streifel AJ. Recognizing IAQ risk and implementing an IAQ program. In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations; Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Publications, 1997;75–91.
  261. Morey PR. Appendix B. Fungal growth checklist. In: Hansen W. ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Health Care Organizations Publications, 1997;129–35.
  262. Brock DL, Jiankang J, Rinaldi MG, Wickes BL, Huycke MM. Outbreak of invasive Aspergillus infection in surgical patients, associated with a contaminated air-handling system. Clin Inf Dis 2003;37:786–93.
  263. (31) National Air Duct Cleaners Association. General specifications for the cleaning of commercial HVAC systems. Washington, DC: NADCA, 2002. Publication No. NAD-06. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.nadca.com/standards/standards.asp]
  264. (32) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Use of disinfectants and sanitizers in heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration systems [letter]. March 14, 2002. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.epa.gov/oppad001/hvac.htm]
  265. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Should you have the air ducts in your home cleaned? Washington, DC: EPA, 1997. EPA Document No. 402-K-97-002.
  266. (159) Vujanovic V, Smoragiewicz W, Krzysztyniak K. Airborne fungal ecological niche determination as one of the possibilities for indirect mycotoxin risk assessment in indoor air. Environ Toxicol 2001;16:1–8.
  267. Soules WJ. Airflow management techniques. Clean Rooms 1993;2:18–20.
  268. Lawson CN. Commissioning hospitals for compliance. ASHRAE Trans 1993;99(2).
  269. Wadowsky R, Benner S. Distribution of the genus Aspergillus in hospital room air conditioners. Infect Control 1987;8:516–8.
  270. Streifel AJ. Aspergillosis and construction. In: Kundsin RB, ed. Architectural design and indoor microbial pollution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988;198–217.
  271. Streifel AJ, Vesley D, Rhame FS. Occurrence of transient high levels of airborne fungal spores. Proceedings of the 6th Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate. Toronto, ON: 1990.
  272. (73) Morey R, Williams C. Porous insulation in buildings: a potential source of microorganisms. Proceedings – Indoor Air ‘90, 5th International Conference. Toronto, ON: 1990;1–6.
  273. (13) Bartley J. Construction and renovation. In: Pfeiffer J, ed. APIC Text of infection control and epidemiology. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc., 2000; 72.1–72.11.
  274. (14) Harvey MA. Critical-care-unit design and furnishing: Impact on nosocomial infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:597–601.
  275. (15) National Association of Children’s Hospitals and Related Institutions. Patient Care Focus Groups 1998. Assessing organizational readiness for infection control issues related to construction, renovation, and physical plant projects.
  276. (50) Bartley JM. APIC State-of-the-art report: the role of infection control during construction in health care facilities. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:156–9.
  277. (16) Carter CD, Barr BA. Infection control issues in construction and renovation. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:587–96.
  278. (47) Streifel AJ. Maintenance and engineering. In: Pfeiffer J, ed. APIC Text of Infection Control and Epidemiology. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc., 2000;76.1-76.8.
  279. Kennedy V, Barnard B, Hackett B. Use of a risk matrix to determine the level of barrier protection during construction activities. Atlanta, GA : Peachtree Publications, 1997;27–8.
  280. Morey PR. Building-related illness with a focus on fungal issues. In: Hansen W, ed. A Guide to managing organizations. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations Publications, 1997;15–25.
  281. (67) Bartley J, ed. Infection control tool kit series – construction and renovation. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, 1999.
  282. Bryce EA, Walker M, Scharf S, et al. An outbreak of cutaneous aspergillosis in a tertiary-care hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:170–2.
  283. (62) Thio CL, Smith D, Merz WG, et al. Refinements of environmental assessment during an outbreak investigation of invasive aspergillosis in a leukemia and bone marrow transplant unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:18–23.
  284. (65) Kuehn TH, Gacek B, Yang CH, et al. Final report: ASHRAE 804-RP Phase I identification of contaminants, exposures effects, and control options for construction/renovation activities. Atlanta, GA;ASHRAE, Inc. 1995.
  285. Kennedy HF, Michie JR, Richardson MD. Air sampling for Aspergillus spp. during building activity in a paediatric hospital ward. J Hosp Infect 1995;31:322–25.
  286. Leenders ACAP, van Belkum A, Behrendt M, Luijendijk AD, Verbrugh HA. Density and molecular epidemiology of Aspergillus in air and relationship to outbreaks of Aspergillus infection. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1752–7.
  287. Rath PM, Ansorg R. Value of environmental sampling and molecular typing of aspergilli to assess nosocomial sources of aspergillosis. J Hosp Infect 1997;37:47–53.
  288. (71) Streifel AJ, Marshall JW. Parameters for ventilation controlled environments in hospitals. In: Design, Construction, and Operation of Healthy Buildings. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE Press, 1998.
  289. (348) Streifel AJ. Air cultures for fungi. In: Gilcrist M, ed. Clinical microbiology procedures handbook. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press,1992;11.8.1–11.8.7.
  290. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). 2000 Threshold limit Values and biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Inc., 2000;1–184.
  291. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Air contaminants standard. 29 CFR 1910.1000, §1910.1000, Tables Z-1, Z-3. Federal Register 1993;58:35338–51.
  292. (86) Leenders A, vanBelkum A, Janssen S, et al. Molecular epidemiology of apparent outbreaks of invasive Aspergillus in a hematology ward. J Clin Microbiol 1996;34:345–51.
  293. (91) James MJ, Lasker BA, McNeil MM, Shelton M, Warnock DW, Reiss E. Use of a repetitive DNA probe to type clinical and environmental isolates of Aspergillus flavus from a cluster of cutaneous infections in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:3612–8.
  294. (92) Skladny H, Buchheidt D, Baust C, et al. Specific detection of Aspergillus species in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage samples of immunocompromised patients by two-step PCR. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:3865–71.
  295. (93) Symoens F, Bouchara J–P, Heinemann S, Nolard N. Molecular typing of Aspergillus terreus isolates by random amplification of polymorphic DNA. J Hosp Infect 2000;44:273–80.
  296. (94) Diaz-Guerra TM, Mellado E, Cuenca-Estrella M, Gaztelurrutia L, Villate Navarro JI, Rodríguez Tudela JL. Genetic similarity among one Aspergillus flavus strain isolated from a patient who underwent heart surgery and two environmental strains obtained from the operating room. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:2419–22.
  297. Buttner MP, Stetzenbach LD. Monitoring airborne fungal spores in an experimental indoor environment to evaluate sampling methods and the effects of human activity on air sampling. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993;59:219–26.
  298. Sayer WJ, Shean DB, Ghosseiri J. Estimation of airborne fungal flora by the Anderson sampler versus the gravity settling culture plate. J Allerg 1969;44:214–27.
  299. Hay RJ, Clayton YM, Goodley JM. Fungal aerobiology: how, when and where? J Hosp Infect 1995;30(Suppl):S352–7.
  300. Morris G, Kokki MH, Anderson K, Richardson MD. Sampling of Aspergillus spores in air. J Hosp Infect 2000;44:81–92.
  301. Iwen PC, Davis JC, Reed EC, Winfield BA, Hinrichs SH. Airborne fungal spore monitoring in a protective environment during hospital construction and correlation with an outbreak of invasive aspergillosis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:303–6.
  302. Pegues DA, Lasker BA, McNeil MM, Hamm PM, Lundal JL, Kubak BM. Cluster of cases of invasive a transplant intensive care unit: evidence of person-to-person airborne transmission. ClinInfect Dis 2002;34:412–6.
  303. Goodley JM, Clayton YM, Hay RJ. Environmental sampling for aspergilli during building construction on a hospital site. J Hosp Infect 1994;26:27–35.
  304. (72) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The HVAC commissioning process. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE, 1996;1–48. ASHRAE Guideline 1.
  305. 63) Mermel LA, Josephson SL, Giorgio CH, Dempsey J, Parenteau S. Association of Legionnaires’ disease with construction: contamination of potable water? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:76–81.
  306. Loo VG, Bertrand C, Dixon C, et al. Control of construction-associated nosocomial aspergillosis in an antiquated hematology unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:360–4.
  307. (68) Ottney TC. Particle management for HVAC systems. ASHRAE J 1993;35:26–28, 30, 32, 34.
  308. Rautiala S, Reponen T, Nevalainen A, et al. Control of exposure to airborne viable microorganisms during remediation of moldy buildings: report of three case studies. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1998;59:455–60.
  309. (69) Finkelstein LE, Mendelson MH. Infection control challenges during hospital renovation. Am J Nursing 1997;97:60–1.
  310. Hruszkewycz V, Ruben B, Hypes CM, Bostic GD, Staszkiewicz J, Band JD. A cluster of pseudofungemia associated with hospital renovation adjacent to the microbiology laboratory. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:147–50.
  311. Laurel VL, Meier PA, Astorga A, Dolan D, Brockett R, Rinaldi MG. Pseudoepidemic of Aspergillus niger infections traced to specimen contamination in the microbiology laboratory. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1612–6.
  312. (66) Opal SM, Asp AA, Cannady PB Jr, Morse PL, Burton LJ, Hammer II PG. Efficacy of infection control measures during a nosocomial outbreak of disseminated aspergillosis associated with hospital construction. J Infect Dis 1986;153: 634–7.
  313. Fitzpatrick F, Prout S, Gilleece A, Fenelon LE, Murphy OM. Nosocomial aspergillosis during building work — a multidisciplinary approach. J Hosp Infect 1999;42:170–1.
  314. Garrett DO, Jochimsen E, Jarvis W. Invasive Aspergillus spp. infections in rheumatology patients. J Rheumatol 1999;26:146–9.
  315. Larsson L, Larsson PF. Analysis of chemical markers as a means of characterizing airborne micro­ organisms in indoor environments: a case study. Indoor Built Environ 2001;10:232–7.
  316. (99) Buckner CD, Clift RA, Sanders JE, et al. Protective environment for marrow transplant recipients: a prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1978;89:893–901.
  317. (100) Murray WA, Streifel AJ, O’Dea TJ, Rhame FS. Ventilation for protection of immune compromised patients. ASHRAE Trans 1988;94:1185–91.
  318. (101) Streifel AJ, Vesley D, Rhame FS, Murray B. Control of airborne fungal spores in a university hospital. Environment International 1989;12:441–4.
  319. Perry S, Penland WZ. The portable laminar flow isolator: new unit for patient protection in a germ-free environment. In: Recent Results in Cancer Research. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1970.
  320. Hayden CS, Fischbach, M, Johnston OE. A model for calculating air leakage in negative pressure isolation areas. Cincinnati, OH: DHHS, 1997. NIOSH Report ECTR 212-05c.
  321. DeLuga GF. Differential airflow, pressure, have key relationship in pressurization. Lab Design 1997:2:6– 7.
  322. Rhame FS. Nosocomial aspergillosis: How much protection for which patients? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1989;10:296–8.
  323. Hofflin JM, Potasman I, Baldwin JC, Oyster PE, Stinson EB, Remington JS. Infectious complications in heart transplant recipients receiving cyclosporine and corticosteroids. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:209–16.
  324. Schulman LL, Smith CR, Drusin R, Rose EA, Enson Y, Reemtsma K. Respiratory complications of cardiac transplantation. Am J Med Sci 1988;296:1–10.
  325. Dummer JS, Ho M. Risk factors and approaches to infections in transplant recipients. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA; Churchill Livingstone, 2000;3126–35.
  326. Dummer JS, Ho M. Infections in solid organ transplant recipients. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;3148–58.
  327. Walsh TR, Guttendorf J, Dummer S, et al. The value of protective isolation procedures in cardiac transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg 1989;47:539–45.
  328. Streifel AJ. Health-care IAQ: guidance for infection control. HPAC Heating/Piping/Air Cond Eng 2000; Oct:28–30, 33, 34, 36.
  329. (87) Yeager CC. Copper and zinc preservatives. In: Block SS, ed. Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger, 1991;358–61.
  330. Cookson ST, Jarvis WR. Prevention of nosocomial transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1997;11:367–409.
  331. (42) CDC. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among HIV-infected persons: Florida and New York, 1988–1991. MMWR 1991;40:585–91.
  332. (43) CDC. Outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis at a hospital — New York City, 1991. MMWR 1993;42:427–34.
  333. (7) Beck-Sague CM, Dooley SW, Hutton MD, et al. Hospital outbreak of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. JAMA 1992;268:1280–6.
  334. (17) Coronado VG, Beck-Sague CM, Hutton MD, et al. Transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis among persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection in an urban hospital: Epidemiologic and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. J Infect Dis 1993;168:1052–5.
  335. (18) Coronado VG, Valway S, Finelli L, et al. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the Third Annual Meeting of the Society for Hospital Epidemiology of America. Chicago, IL: Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:428.
  336. (8) Dooley SW, Villarino ME, Lawrence M, et al. Tuberculosis in a hospital unit for patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): evidence of nosocomial transmission. JAMA 1992;267:2632–4.
  337. (19) Edlin BR, Tokars JI, Grieco MH, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among hospitalized patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: epidemiologic studies and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1514–22.
  338. (20) Fischl MA, Uttamchandani RB, Daikos GL, et al. An outbreak of tuberculosis caused by multiple­ drug-resistant tubercle bacilli among patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:177–83.
  339. (21) Ikeda ARM, Birkhead GS, DeFerdinando Jr GT, et al. Nosocomial tuberculosis: an outbreak of a strain resistant to seven drugs. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:152–9.
  340. (22) Jarvis WR. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Res Microbiol 1992;144:117–22.
  341. (23) Jarvis WR. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Am J Infect Control 1995;23:146–51.
  342. (24) Jereb JA, Klevens RM, Privett TD, et al. Tuberculosis in health care workers at a hospital with an outbreak of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:854–9.
  343. (25) Moran GJ, McCabe F, Morgan MT, Talan DA. Delayed recognition and infection control for tuberculosis patients in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1995;26:283–9.
  344. (26) Pearson ML, Jereb JA, Frieden TR, et al. Nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a risk to hospitalized patients and health-care workers. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:191–6.
  345. Tokars JI, Jarvis WR, Edlin BR, et al. Tuberculin skin testing of hospital employees during an outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:509–10.
  346. Macher JM. The use of germicidal lamps to control tuberculosis in healthcare facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:723–9.
  347. (129) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Respiratory Protection, 29 CFR 1910.139. Federal Register 1998;63:1152–300.
  348. (105) Ehrenkranz NJ, Kicklighter JL. Tuberculosis outbreak in a general hospital: evidence for airborne spread of infection. Ann Intern Med 1972;77:377–82.
  349. (106) Calder RA, Duclos P, Wilder MH, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission in a health clinic. Bull Int Union Tuberc Lung Dis 1991;66:103–6.
  350. (107) Jereb JA, Burwen DR, Dooley SW, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of tuberculosis in a renal transplant unit: application of a new technique for restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. J Infect Dis 1993;168:1219–24.
  351. (127) Ayliffe GAJ. Role of the environment of the operating suite in surgical wound infection. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13(suppl):S800–S804.
  352. (128) Choux M, Genitori L, Lang D, Lena G. Shunt implantation: reducing the incidence of shunt infection. J Neurosurg 1992;77:875–80.
  353. Edmiston CE Jr, Sinski S, Seabrook GR, Simons D, Goheen MP. Airborne particulates in the OR environment. AORN J 1999;69:1169–72.
  354. Duhaime AC, Bonner K, McGowan KL, Schut L, Sutton LN, Plotkin S. Distribution of bacteria in the operating room environment and its relation to ventricular shunt infections: a prospective study. Childs Nerv Syst 1991;7:211–4.
  355. Everett WD, Kipp H. Epidemiologic observations of operating room infections resulting from variations in ventilation and temperature. Am J Infect Control 1991;19:277–82.
  356. (115) Lidwell OM. Clean air at operation and subsequent sepsis in the joint. Clin Orthop 1986;211:91–02.
  357. (116) Nichols RL. The operating room. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections, 3rd ed. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1992;461–73.
  358. (117) Clark RP, Reed PJ, Seal DV, Stephenson ML. Ventilation conditions and air-borne bacteria and particles in operating theatres: proposed safe economies. J Hyg (Lond) 1985;95:325–35.
  359. (119) Laufman H. The operating room. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections, 2nd ed. Boston, MA/Toronto, ON: Little, Brown and Company, 1986;315–23.
  360. Pittet D, Ducel G. Infectious risk factors related to operating rooms. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:456–62.
  361. Hambraeus A. Aerobiology in the operating room — a review. J Hosp Infect 1988;11(suppl. A):68–76.
  362. (118) Babb JR, Lynam P, Ayliffe GAJ. Risk of airborne transmission in an operating theater containing four ultraclean air units. J Hosp Infect 1995;31:159–68.
  363. Velesco, E, Thuler LCS, Martins CAS, deCastroDias LM, Conalves VMSC. Risk factors for infectious complications after abdominal surgery for malignant disease. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:1–6.
  364. (120) National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Division of Medical Sciences, Ad Hoc Committee on Trauma. Postoperative wound infections: the influence of ultraviolet irradiation of the operating room and of various other factors. Ann Surg 1964;160 (suppl.):1–192.
  365. (121) Charnley J. A clean-air operating enclosure. Br J Surg 1964;51:202–5.
  366. (122) Lidwell OM, Lowbury EJL, Whyte W, Blowers R, Stanley SJ, Lowe D. Effect of ultraclean air in operating rooms on deep sepsis in the joint after total hip or knee replacement: a randomized study. Br Med J 1982;285:10–4.
  367. (123) Hill C, Flamant R, Mazas F, Evrard J. Prophylactic cefazolin versus placebo in total hip replacement: report of a multicentre double-blind randomized trial. Lancet 1981;1:795–6.
  368. (124) Ha’eri GB, Wiley AM. Total hip replacement in a laminar flow environment with special reference to deep infections. Clin Orthop 1980;148:163–8.
  369. (125) Collins DK, Steinhaus K. Total hip replacement without deep infection in a standard operating room. J Bone Joint Surg 1976;58A:446–50.
  370. (126) Taylor GD, Bannister GC, Leeming JP. Wound disinfection with ultraviolet radiation. J Hosp Infect 1995;30:85–93.
  371. (130) Langevin PB, Rand KH, Layton AJ. The potential for dissemination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis through the anesthesia breathing circuit. Chest 1999;115:1107–14.
  372. (131) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational exposure to tuberculosis: proposed rule. (29 CFR 1910). Federal Register 1997;62:54159–209.
  373. (132) Aranha-Creado H, Prince D, Greene K, Brandwein H. Removal of Mycobacterium species by breathing circuit filters. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:252–254.
  374. Anesthesiology Society of America. Infection Control for Practice of Anesthesisology. 1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.asahq.org/Profinfo/Infection/Infection_TOC.html]
  375. McCarthy JF. Risk factors for occupational exposures in healthcare professionals. In: Hansen W, ed. A guide to managing indoor air quality in health care organizations. Oakbrook Terrace IL: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, 1997;27–41.
  376. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation and Technical Assistance Report: HETA 85-126-1932;1988.
  377. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation and Technical Assistance Report: HETA 88-101-2008;1990.
  378. (135) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Control of smoke from laser/electric surgical procedures. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 96-128;1996. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/niosh/hc11.html]
  379. Taravella MJ, Weinberg A, Blackburn P, May M. Do intact viral particles survive excimer laser ablation? Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115:1028–30.
  380. Hagen KB, Kettering JD, Aprecio RM, et al. Lack of virus transmission by the excimer laser plume. Am J Ophthalmol 1997;124:206–11.
  381. Kunachak S, Sithisarn P, Kulapaditharom B. Are laryngeal papilloma virus-infected cells viable in the plume derived from a continuous mode carbon dioxide laser, and are they infectious? A preliminary report on one laser mode. J Laryng Otol 1996;110:1031–3.
  382. (137) Hughes PS, Hughes AP. Absence of human papillomavirus DNA in the plume of erbium:YAG laser-treated warts. J Am Acad Dermatol 1998;38:426–8.
  383. Garden JM, O’Bannion K, Sheinitz LS, et al. Papillomavirus in the vapor of carbon dioxide laser treated verrucase. JAMA 1988;125:1199–202.
  384. Sawchuck WS, Weber JP, Lowry DR, et al. Infectious papillomavirus in the vapour of warts treated with carbon dioxide laser or electrocoagulation: detection and protection. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:41–9.
  385. Baggish MS, Poiesz BJ, Joret D, et al. Presence of human immunodeficiency virus DNA in laser smoke. Lasers Surg Med 1991;11:197–203.
  386. (138) Capizzi PJ, Clay RP, Battey MJ. Microbiologic activity in laser resurfacing plume and debris. Lasers Surg Med 1998;23:172–4.
  387. McKinley IB Jr, Ludlow MO. Hazards of laser smoke during endodontic therapy. J Endodont 1994;20:558.
  388. Favero MS, Bolyard EA. Microbiologic considerations: disinfection and sterilization strategies and the potential for airborne transmission of bloodborne pathogens. Surg Clin North Am 1995;75:1071–89.
  389. (136) Association of periOperative Registered Nurses. Recommended practices for laser safety in practice settings. In: Standards, Recommended Practices and Guidelines. Denver CO; AORN;2003;301–5.
  390. (139) ECRI. Surgical smoke evacuation systems. Health Devices 1997;26:132–72.
  391. (140) ECRI. Update evaluation: Surgical smoke evacuation systems. Health Devices 1999;28:333–62.
  392. (141) ECRI. Stationary surgical smoke evacuation systems. Health Devices 2001;30:73–86.
  393. American National Standards Institute. ANSI National standard for safe use of lasers in health care facilities. ANSI Z136.3-1996.
  394. Kaufman AF, McDade J, Patton C, et al. Pontiac fever: isolation of the etiologic agent (Legionella pneumophila) and demonstration of its mode of transmission. Am J Epidemiol 1981;114:337–47.
  395. (192) Marston BJ, Lipman HB, Breiman RF. Surveillance for Legionnaires’ disease: risk factors for morbidity and mortality related to infection with Legionella. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:2417–22.
  396. (Appendix; 4) Hoge CW, Breiman RF. Advances in the epidemiology and control of Legionella infections. Epidemiol Rev 1991;13:329–40.
  397. Breiman RF, Butler JC. Legionnaires’ disease: clinical, epidemiological, and public health perspectives. Semin Respir Infect 1998;13:84–9.
  398. Yu, VL. Legionella pneumophila (Legionnaires’ disease). In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2424– 35.
  399. Muder RR. Other Legionella species. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone, 2000;2435–41.
  400. Yu VL. Could aspiration be the major mode of transmission for Legionella? Am J Med 1993;95:13–5.
  401. Jimenez P, Torres A, Rodriguez-Roisin R, et al. Incidence and etiology of pneumonia acquired during mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 1989;17:882–5.
  402. (220) Zuravleff JJ, Yu VL, Shonnard JW, Rihs JD, Best M. Legionella pneumophila contamination of a hospital humidifier: demonstration of aerosol transmission and subsequent subclinical infection in exposed guinea pigs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983;128:657–61.
  403. (202) Mastro TD, Fields BS, Breiman RF, Campbell J, Plikaytis BD, Spika JS. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease and use of medication nebulizers. J Infect Dis 1991;163:667–70.
  404. (203) Dondero TJ Jr, Rendtorff RC, Mallison GF, et al. An outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease associated with a contaminated air-conditioning cooling tower. N Engl J Med 1980;302:365–70.
  405. (199) Garbe PL, Davis BJ, Weisfield JS, et al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: epidemiologic demonstration of cooling towers as a source. JAMA 1985;254:521–4.
  406. (204) O’Mahony MC, Stanwell-Smith RE, Tillett HE, et al. The Stafford outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease. Epidemiol Infect 1990;104:361–80.
  407. (205) Breiman RF, Fields BS, Sanden G, Volmer L, Meier A, Spika J. An outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease associated with shower use: possible role of amoebae. JAMA 1990;263:2924–6.
  408. (200) Hanrahan JP, Morse DL, Scharf VB, et al. A community hospital outbreak of legionellosis: transmission by potable hot water. Am J Epidemiol 1987;125:639–9.
  409. (206) Breiman RF, VanLoock FL, Sion JP, et al. Association of “sink bathing” and Legionnaires’ disease [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 91st Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology, 1991.
  410. (207) Struelens MJ, Maes N, Rost F, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic methods for the investigation of a nosocomial Legionella pneumophila outbreak and efficacy of control measures. J Infect Dis 1992;166:22– 30.
  411. Terranova W, Cohen ML, Fraser DW. Outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease diagnosed in 1977. Lancet 1978;2:122–4.
  412. (219) Marrie TJ, Haldane D, MacDonald S, et al. Control of endemic nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease by using sterile potable water for high risk patients. Epidemiol Infect 1991;107:591–605.
  413. Nechwatal R, Ehret W, Klatte OJ, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of legionellosis in a rehabilitation center: demonstration of potable water as a source. Infection 1993;21:235–40.
  414. Hoebe CJP, Cluitmanans JJM, Wagenvoort JHT. Two fatal cases of nosocomial Legionella pneumophila pneumonia associated with a contaminated cold water supply. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1998;17:740–9.
  415. Helms CM, Viner JP, Sturm RH, et al. Comparative features of pneumococcal, Mycoplasma, and Legionnaires’ disease pneumonias. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:543–7.
  416. Yu V, Kroboth FJ, Shonnard J, Brown A, McDearman S, Magnussen M. Legionnaires’ disease: new clinical perspectives from a prospective pneumonia study. Am J Med 1982;73:357–61.
  417. (194) Jimenez ML, Aspa J, Padilla B, et al. Fiberoptic bronchoscopic diagnosis of pulmonary disease in 151 HIV-infected patients with pneumonitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1991;10:491–6.
  418. Lowry PW, Blankenship RJ, Gridley W, et al. A cluster of Legionella sternal wound infections due to postoperative topical exposure to contaminated tap water. N Engl J Med 1991;324:109–12.
  419. Shah A, Check F, Baskin S. Legionnaires’ disease and acute renal failure: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:204–7.
  420. Lowry PW, Tompkins LS. Nosocomial legionellosis: a review of pulmonary and extrapulmonary syndromes. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:21–7.
  421. Schlanger G, Lutwick LI, Kurzman M, et al. Sinusitis caused by L. pneumophila in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Med 1984;77:957–60.
  422. Tompkins LS, Roessler BJ, Redd SC, et al. Legionella prosthetic-valve endocarditis. N Engl J Med 1988;318:530–5.
  423. (195) Bock BV, Kirby BD, Edelstein PH, et al. Legionnaires’ disease in renal transplant recipients. Lancet 1978;1:410–3.
  424. (196) Kirby BD, Snyder KM, Meyer RD, Finegold SM. Legionnaires’ disease: report of 65 nosocomially acquired cases and review of the literature. Medicine 1980;59:188–205.
  425. (197) Brady MT. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease in a children’s hospital. J Pediatr 1989;115:46–50.
  426. Horie H, Kawakami H, Minoshima K, et al. Neonatal Legionnaires’ disease: histologic findings in an autopsied neonate. Acta Pathol Jpn 1992;42:427–31.
  427. Roig J, Aguilar X, Ruiz J, et al. Comparative study of Legionella pneumophila and other nosocomial pneumonias. Chest 1991;99:344–50.
  428. Redd SC, Schuster DM, Quan J, et al. Legionellosis cardiac transplant recipients: results of a nationwide survey. J Infect Dis 1988;158:651–3.
  429. Seu P, Winston DJ, Olthoft KM, et al. Legionnaires’ disease in liver transplant recipients. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1993;2:109–13.
  430. (215) Chow JW, Yu VL. Legionella: a major opportunistic pathogen in transplant recipients. Semin Respir Infect 1998;13:132–9.
  431. (189) Kool JL, Fiore AE, Kioski CM, et al. More than ten years of unrecognized nosocomial transmission of Legionnaires’ disease among transplant patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:898–904.
  432. (190) Le Saux NM, Sekla L, McLeod J, et al. Epidemic of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease in renal transplant recipients: a case-control and environmental study. Can Med Assoc J 1989;140:1047–53.
  433. Berendt RF, Young HW, Allen RG, Knutsen GL. Dose-response of guinea pigs experimentally infected with aerosols of Legionella pneumophila. J Infect Dis 1980;141:186–92.
  434. Marston BJ, Plouffe JF, File TM, et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization — results of a population-based active surveillance study in Ohio. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1709–18.
  435. (198) Muder RR, Yu VL, McClure JK, Kroboth FJ, Kominos SD, Lumish RN. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease uncovered in a prospective pneumonia study: implications for underdiagnosis. JAMA 1983;249:3184–8.
  436. Brennen C, Vickers JP, Yu VL, Puntereri A, Yee YC. Discovery of occult Legionella pneumonia in a long- stay hospital: Results of prospective serologic survey. Br Med J 1987;295:306–7.
  437. (166) Marrie TJ, MacDonald S, Clarke K, Haldane D. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: lessons from a four-year prospective study. Am J Infect Control 1991;19:79–85.
  438. Stout JE, Yu, VL. Current concepts: legionellosis. N Engl J Med 1997;337:682–7.
  439. Vergis EN, Yu VL. Macrolides are ideal for empiric therapy of community-acquired pneumonia in the immunocompromised host. Semin Respir Infect 1998;13:322–8.
  440. Sopena N, Sabria-Leal M, Pedro-Botet ML, et al. Comparative study of the clinical presentation of Legionella pneumonia and other community-acquired pneumonias. Chest 1998;113:1195–200.
  441. (217) Hirani NA, MacFarlane JT. Impact of management guidelines on the outcome of severe community acquired pneumonia. Thorax 1997;52:17–21.
  442. Lieberman D, Porath A, Schlaeffer F, Boldur L. L. pneumophila species community-acquired pneumonia: a review of 56 hospitalized patients. Chest 1996;109:1243–9.
  443. Ewig S, Bauer T, Hasper E, et al. Value of routine microbial investigation in community-acquired pneumonia treated in a tertiary care center. Respiration 1996;63:164–9.
  444. Marrie TJ, Peeling RW, Fine MJ, et al. Ambulatory patients with community-acquired pneumonia: the frequency of atypical agents and clinical course. Am J Med 1996;101:508–15.
  445. Benin Al, Benson RF, Besser RE. Trends in Legionnaires’ disease, 1980–1998: declining mortality and new patterns of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:1039–46.
  446. Fliermans CD, Cherry WB, Orrison LH, Smith SJ, Tison DL, Pope DH. Ecologic distribution of Legionella pneumophila. Appl Environ Microbiol 1981;41:9–16.
  447. Morris GK, Patton CM, Feeley JC, et al. Isolation of the Legionnaires’ disease bacterium from environmental samples. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:664–6.
  448. Hsu SC, Martin R, Wentworth BB. Isolation of Legionella species from drinking water. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984;48:830–2.
  449. Tison DL, Seidler RJ. Legionella incidence and density in potable drinking water. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;45:337–9.
  450. Parry MF, Stampleman L, Hutchinson JH, et al. Waterborne Legionella bozemanii and nosocomial pneumonia in immunosuppressed patients. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:205–10.
  451. England AC, Fraser DW. Sporadic and epidemic nosocomial legionellosis in the United States: epidemiologic features. Am J Med 1981;70:707–11.
  452. Cohen ML, Broome CV, Paris AL, et al. Fatal nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: clinical and epidemiological characteristics. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:611–3.
  453. (193) Haley CE, Cohen ML, Halter J, Meyer RD. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: a continuing common-source epidemic at Wadsworth Medical Center. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:583–6.
  454. Stout JE, Yu VL, Vickers RM, Shonnard J. Potable water supply as the hospital reservoir for Pittsburgh pneumonia agent. Lancet 1982;1:471–2.
  455. (201) Arnow PM, Chou T, Weil D, Shapiro EN, Kretzschmar C. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease caused by aerosolized tap water from respiratory devices. J Infect Dis 1982;146:460–7.
  456. Farrell ID, Barker JE, Miles EP, Hutchinson JCP. A field study of the survival of Legionella pneumophila in a hospital hot-water system. Epidemiol Infect 1990;104:381–7.
  457. Stout JE, Yu VL, Best MG. Ecology of Legionella pneumophila within water distribution systems. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985;49:221–8.
  458. Sanden GN, Fields BS, Barbaree JM, et al. Viability of Legionella pneumophila in chlorine-free water at elevated temperatures. Curr Microbiol 1989;61–5.
  459. Schulze-Röbbecke R, Rodder M, Exner M. Multiplication and killing temperatures of naturally occurring legionellae. Zbl Bakt Hyg B 1987;184:495–500.
  460. Habicht W, Muller HE. Occurrence and parameters of frequency of Legionella in warm water systems of hospitals and hotels in Lower Saxony. Zbl Bakt Hyg B 1988;186:79–88.
  461. Ciesielski CA, Blaser MJ, Wang WL. Role of stagnation and obstruction of water flow in isolation of Legionella pneumophila from hospital plumbing. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984;48:984–7.
  462. Rowbotham TJ. Preliminary report on the pathogenicity of Legionella pneumophila for freshwater and soil amoebae. J Clin Path 1980;33:179–83.
  463. Fields BS, Sanden GN, Barbaree JM, et al. Intracellular multiplication of Legionella pneumophila in amoebae isolated from hospital hot water tanks. Curr Microbiol 1989;18:131–7.
  464. (142) Villarino ME, Stevens LE, Schable B, et al. Risk factors for epidemic Xanthomonas maltophilia infection/colonization in intensive care unit patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:201–6.
  465. (147) Burdge DR, Nakielna EM, Noble MA. Case-control and vector studies of nosocomial acquisition of Pseudomonas cepacia in adult patients with cystic fibrosis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:127– 30.
  466. Stephenson JR, Heard SR, Richards MA, Tabaqchali S. Gastrointestinal colonization and septicaemia with Pseudomonas aeruginosa due to contaminated thymol mouthwash in immunocompromised patients. J Hosp Infect 1985;6:369–78.
  467. Kolmos HJ, Thusen B, Neilsen SV, Lohmann M, Kristoffersen K, Rosdahl VT. Outbreak of infection in a burns unit due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa originating from contaminated tubing used for irrigating patients. J Hosp Infect 1993;24:11–21.
  468. Vanholder R, Vanhaecke E, Ringoir S. Waterborne Pseudomonas septicemia. ASAIO Trans 1990;36:M215–6.
  469. Ehni WF, Reller LB, Ellison RT III. Bacteremia in granulocytopenic patients in a tertiary-care general hospital. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:613–9.
  470. Gallagher PG, Watanakunakorn C. Pseudomonas bacteremia in a community teaching hospital, 1980– 1984. Rev Infect Dis 1989;11:846–52.
  471. Centers for Disease Control. Nosocomial infection and pseudoinfection from contaminated endoscopes and bronchoscopes — Wisconsin and Missouri. MMWR 1991;40:675–8.
  472. Kerr JR, Moore JE, Curran MD, et al. Investigation of a nosocomial outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia in an intensive care unit by random amplification of polymorphic DNA assay. J Hosp Infect 1995;30:125–31.
  473. Brewer SC, Wunderink RG, Jones CB, Leeper KV. Ventilator-associated pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chest 1996;109:1019–22.
  474. Rello J, Jubert P, Valles J, et al. Evaluation of outcome for intubated patients with pneumonia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:973–8.
  475. Henderson A, Kelly W, Wright M. Fulminant primary Pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia and septicaemia in previously well adults. Intensive Care Med 1992;18:430–2.
  476. Torres A, Serra-Battles J, Ferrer A, et al. Severe community acquired pneumonia: epidemiology and prognostic factors. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:312–8.
  477. Pedersen SS, Koch C, Hriby N, Rosendal K. An epidemic spread of multiresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a cystic fibrosis center. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986;17:505–6.
  478. Kubesch P, Dörk T, Wulbrand U, et al. Genetic determinants of airways’ colonization with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis. Lancet 1993;341:189–93.
  479. Koch C, Hriby N. Pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis. Lancet 1993;341:1065–9.
  480. Worlitzsch D, Wolz C. Botzenart K, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa – urinary tract infections in paraplegic patients. Zentrabl Hyg Umweltmed 1989;189:175–84.
  481. Glenister H, Holton J, Teall A. Urinary tract pressure recording equipment as a source for infection. J Hosp Infect 1985;6:224–6.
  482. Ferroni A., Nguyen L, Pron B, Quense G, Brusset MC, Berche P. Outbreak of nosocomial urinary tract infections due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a paediatric surgical unit associated with tap water contamination. J Hosp infect 1998;39:301–7.
  483. Marrie TJ, Major H, Gurwith M, et al. Prolonged outbreak of nosocomial urinary tract infection with a single strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Can Med Assoc J 1978;119:593–8.
  484. Moore B, Forman A. An outbreak of urinary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection acquired during urological operations. Lancet 1966;2:929–31.
  485. Anderson RJ, Schafer LA, Olin DB, Eickhoff TC. Septicemia in renal transplant recipients. Arch Surg 1973;106:692–4.
  486. Fang G, Brennen C, Wagener M, et al. Use of ciprofloxacin versus use of aminoglycosides for therapy of complicated urinary tract infection: prospective, randomized clinical and pharmacokinetic study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991;35:1849–55.
  487. Dorff GJ, Beimer NF, Rosenthal DR, Rytel MW. Pseudomonas septicemia: illustrated evolution of its skin lesions. Arch Intern Med 1971;128:591–5.
  488. Teplitz C. Pathogenesis of Pseudomonas vasculitis and septic lesions. Arch Pathol 1965;80:297–307.
  489. Roberts R, Tarpay MM, Marks MI, Nitschke R. Erysipelas-like lesions and hyperesthesia as manifestations of Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis. JAMA 1982;248:2156–7.
  490. Duncan BW, Adzick NS, deLorimier AA, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis in childhood. J Pediatr Surg 1992;27:668–71.
  491. McManus AT, Mason AD Jr, McManus WF, Pruitt BA Jr. Twenty-five year review of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia in a burn center. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1985;4:219–23.
  492. Tredget EE, Shankowsky HA, Joffe AM, et al. Epidemiology of infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa in burn patients: the role of hydrotherapy. Clin Infect Dis 1992;15:941–9.
  493. Schlech WF III, Simosen N, Sumarah R, Martin RS. Nosocomial outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa folliculitis associated with a physiotherapy pool. Can Med Assoc J 1986;134:909–13.
  494. Fang G, Keys TF, Gentry LO, et al. Prosthetic valve endocarditis resulting from nosocomial bacteremia: a prospective, multicenter study. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:560–7.
  495. Cohen PS, Maguire JH, Weinstein L. Infective endocarditis caused by gram-negative bacteria: a review of the literature, 1945–1977. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1980;22:205–42.
  496. Wise BL, Mathis JL, Jawetz E. Infections of the central nervous system due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Neurosurg 1969;31:432–4.
  497. Bray DA, Calcaterra TC. Pseudomonas meningitis complicating head and neck surgery. Laryngoscope 1976;86:1386–90.
  498. Schein OD, Wasson PJ, Boruchoff SA, Kenyon KR. Microbial keratitis associated with contaminated ocular medications. Am J Ophthalmol 1988;105:361–5.
  499. Procope JA. Delayed-onset Pseudomonas keratitis after radial keratotomy. J Cataract Refract Surg 1997;23:1271–2.
  500. Sapico FL, Montgomerie JZ. Vertebral osteomyelitis in intravenous drug abusers: report of three cases and review of the literature. Rev Infect Dis 1980;2:196–206.
  501. Tindel JR, Crowder JG. Septic arthritis due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. JAMA 1971;218:559-61.
  502. Martone WJ, Tablan OC, Jarvis WR. The epidemiology of nosocomial epidemic Pseudomonas cepacia infections. Eur J Epidemiol 1987;3:222–32.
  503. Goldmann DA, Klinger JD. Pseudomonas cepacia: biology, mechanisms of virulence, epidemiology. J Pediatr 1986;108:806–12.
  504. Widmer AF, Wenzel RP, Trilla A, et al. Outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in a surgical intensive care unit: probable transmission via hands of a health care worker. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16: 372– 6.
  505. Döring G, Hörz M, Ortelt J, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an intensive care unit. Epidemiol Infect 1993;110:427–36.
  506. Hollyoak V, Allison D, Summers J. Pseudomonas aeruginosa wound infection associated with a nursing home whirlpool bath. CDR Review 1995;5:R100–2.
  507. Grundmann H, Kropec A, Hartung D, Berner R, Daschner F. Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a neonatal intensive care unit: reservoirs and ecology of the nosocomial pathogen. J Infect Dis 1993;168:943–7.
  508. Martino P, Venditti M, Papa G, Orefici G, Serra P. Water supply as a source of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a hospital for hematological malignancies. Bollettino dell Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese 1985;64:109– 14.
  509. Ayliffe GAJ, Babb JR, Collins BJ, Lowbury EJ, Newsom SWB. Pseudomonas aeruginosa in hospital sinks. Lancet 1974;2:578–81.
  510. Kluyver AJ. Pseudomonas aureofaciens nov. spec and its pigments. J Bacteriol 1956;72:406–11.
  511. Romling U, Fiedler B, Bosshammer J, et al. Epidemiology of chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in cystic fibrosis. J Infect Dis 1994:170:1616–21.
  512. Jones F, Bartlett CL. Infections associated with whirlpools and spas. Soc Appl Bacteriol Symp Series 1985;14:61S–6S.
  513. Casewell MW, Slater NG, Cooper JE. Operating theater water-baths as a cause of Pseudomonas septicemia. J Hosp Infect 1981;2:237–47.
  514. Rechsteiner J, Landheer JE, de Jong J, van Kregten E, Lindner JG. [Kidney lithotriptor as a possible source of hospital infection]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 1988;132:1849–59. (Dutch)
  515. (308) Taplin D, Mertz PM. Flower vases in hospitals as reservoirs for pathogens. Lancet 1973;2: 1279– 1281.
  516. Kaiser AB. Humidifiers and Pseudomonas infections. N Engl J Med 1970;283:708.
  517. Levin MH, Olson B, Nathan C, et al. Pseudomonas in the sinks in an intensive care unit: relation to patients. J Clin Pathol 1984;37:424–7.
  518. Paszko-Kolva C, Yamamoto H, Shahamat M, Sawyer TK, Morris G, Colwell RR. Isolation of amoebae and Pseudomonas and Legionella spp. from eyewash stations. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991;57:163–7.
  519. Struelens MJ, Rost F, Deplano A, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacteriaceae bacteremia after biliary endoscopy: an outbreak investigation using DNA macrorestriction analysis. Am J Med 1993;95:489–98.
  520. Blanc DS, Parret T, Janin B, Raselli P, Francioli P. Nosocomial infections and pseudoinfections from contaminated bronchoscopes: two-year follow up using molecular markers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:134–6.
  521. Boukadida J, de Montalembert M, Gaillard JL, et al. Outbreak of gut colonization by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in immunocompromised children undergoing total digestive decontamination: analysis by pulsed-field electrophoresis. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:2068–71.
  522. Grigis A, Goglio A, Parea M, Gnecchi F, Minetti B, Barbui T. Nosocomial outbreak of severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in haematological patients. Eur J Epidemiol 1993;9:390–5.
  523. Gupta AK, Shashi S, Mohan M, Lamba IM, Gupta R. Epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Trop Pediatr 1993;39:32–6.
  524. Sader HS Pignatari AC, Leme IL, et al. Epidemiologic typing of multiply drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from an outbreak in an intensive care unit. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1993;17:13–8.
  525. Krecmery V, Trupl J. Nosocomial outbreak of meropenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in a cancer center. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:209–18.
  526. Jumaa P, Chattopadhyay B. Outbreak of gentamicin, ciprofloxacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an intensive care unit, traced to contaminated quivers. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:209–18.
  527. Carson LA, Favero MS, Bond WW, Petersen NJ. Morphological, biochemical, and growth characteristics of Pseudomonas cepacia from distilled water. Appl Microbiol 1973;25:476–83.
  528. Bassett DC, Stokes KJ, Thomas WR. Wound infection with Pseudomonas multivorans: a waterborne contaminant of disinfectant solutions. Lancet 1970;1:1188–91.
  529. Wishart MM, Riley TV. Infection with Pseudomonas maltophilia: hospital outbreak due to contaminated disinfectant. Med J Aust 1976;2:710–2.
  530. Conly JM, Klass L, Larson L. Pseudomonas cepacia colonization and infection in intensive care units. Can Med Assoc J 1986;134:363–6.
  531. Bosshammer J, Fielder B, Gudowis P, von der Hardt H, Romling U, Tummler B. Comparative hygienic surveillance of contamination with pseudomonads in a cystic fibrosis ward over a 4-year period. J Hosp Infect 1995;31:261–74.
  532. Hutchinson GR, Parker S, Pryor JA, et al. Home-use nebulizers: a potential primary source of B. cepacia and other colistin-resistant, gram-negative bacteria in patients with cystic fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol 1996;34:584–7.
  533. Pegues DA, Carson LA, Anderson RL, et al. Outbreak of Pseudomonas cepacia bacteremia in oncology patients. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:407–11.
  534. CDC. Nosocomial Burkholderia cepacia infection and colonization with intrinsically contaminated mouthwash — Arizona, 1998. MMWR 1998;47:926–8.
  535. Berthelot P, Grattard F, Mahul P, et al. Ventilator temperature sensors: an unusual source of Pseudomonas cepacia in nosocomial infection. J Hosp Infect 1993;25:33–43.
  536. Khardori N, Elting L, Wong E, et al. Nosocomial infections due to Xanthomonas maltophilia (Pseudomonas maltophilia) in patients with cancer. Rev Infect Dis 1990;12:997–1003.
  537. Oie S, Oomaki M, Yorioka K, et al. Microbial contamination of “sterile water” used in Japanese hospitals. J Hosp Infect 1998;38:61–5.
  538. Crane LR, Tagle LC, Palutke WA. Outbreak of Pseudomonas paucimobilis in an intensive care facility. JAMA 1981;246:985–7.
  539. Lemaitre D, Elaichouni A, Hundhausen M, et al. Tracheal colonization with Sphingomonas paucimobilis in mechanically-ventilated neonates due to contaminated ventilator temperature probes. J Hosp Infect 1996;32:199–206.
  540. Maki DG, Klein BS, McCormick RD, et al. Nosocomial Pseudomonas pickettii bacteremias traced to narcotic tampering. A case for selective drug screening of health care personnel. JAMA 1991;265:981–6.
  541. Maroye P, Doermann HP, Rogues AM, Gachie JP, Mégraud F. Investigation of an outbreak of Ralstonia pickettii in a paediatric hospital by RAPD. J Hosp Infection 2000:44;267–72.
  542. McNeil MM, Solomon SL, Anderson RL, et al. Nosocomial Pseudomonas pickettii colonization associated with a contaminated respiratory therapy solution in a special care nursery. J Clin Microbiol 1985;22:903–7.
  543. Lamka KG, LeChevallier MW, Seidler RJ. Bacterial contamination of drinking water supplies in a modern rural neighborhood. Appl Environ Microbiol 1980;39:734–8.
  544. Nakashima AK, McCarthy MA, Martone WJ, Anderson RL. Epidemic septic arthritis caused by Serratia marcescens and associated with a benzalkonium chloride antiseptic. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25:1014–8.
  545. Nakashima AK, Highsmith AK, Martone WJ. Survival of Serratia marcescens in benzalkonium chloride and in multiple-dose medication vials: relationship to epidemic septic arthritis. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25: 1019–21.
  546. Bosi C, Davin-Regli A, Charrel R, Rocca B, Monnet D, Bollet C. Serratia marcescens nosocomial outbreak due to contamination of hexetidine solution. J Hosp Infect 1996;33:217–24.
  547. Ehrenkranz NJ, Bolyard EA, Wiener M, Cleary TJ. Antibiotic-sensitive Serratia marcescens infections complicating cardiopulmonary operations: contaminated disinfectant as a reservoir. Lancet 1980;2:1289– 92.
  548. Cimolai N, Trombley C, Wensley D, LeBlanc J. Heterogeneous Serratia marcescens genotypes from a nosocomial pediatric outbreak. Chest 1997;111:194–7.
  549. Hartstein AI, Rashad AL, Liebler JM, et al. Multiple intensive care unit outbreaks of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus subspecies anitratus respiratory infection and colonization associated with contaminated, reusable ventilator circuits and resuscitation bags. Am J Med 1988;85:624–31.
  550. Stone JW, Das BC. Investigation of an outbreak of infection with Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in a special care baby unit. J Hosp Infect 1986;7:42–8.
  551. Vandenbroucke-Grauls CMJE, Kerver AJH, Rommes JH, Jansen R, den Dekker C, Verhoef J. Endemic Acinetobacter anitratus in a surgical intensive care unit: mechanical ventilators as reservoir. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1988;7:485–9.
  552. Cefai C, Richards J, Gould FK, McPeake P. An outbreak of Acinetobacter respiratory infection resulting from incomplete disinfection of ventilatory equipment. J Hosp Infect 1990;15:177–82.
  553. Gervich DH, Grout CS. An outbreak of nosocomial Acinetobacter infections from humidifiers. Am J Infect Control 1985;13:210–5.
  554. Castle M, Tenney JH, Weinstein MP, Eickhoff TC. Outbreak of a multiply resistant Acinetobacter in a surgical intensive care unit. Heart Lung 1978;7:641–4.
  555. Smith PW, Massanari RM. Room humidifiers as a source of Acinetobacter infections. JAMA 1977;237: 795–7.
  556. Snydman DR, Maloy MF, Brock SM, Lyons RW, Rubin SJ. Pseudobacteremia: false-positive blood cultures from mist tent contamination. Am J Epidemiol 1977;106:154–9.
  557. Rosenthal SL. Sources of Pseudomonas and Acinetobacter species found in human culture materials. Am J Clin Pathol 1974;62:807–11.
  558. Allen KD, Green HT. Hospital outbreak of multi-resistant Acinetobacter anitratus: an airborne mode of spread. J Hosp Infect 1987;9:169–75.
  559. Crombach WHJ, Dijkshoorn L, van Noort-Klaassen M, Niessen J, van Knippenbert-Gordebeke G. Control of an epidemic spread of multi-resistant Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in a hospital. Intensive Care Med 1989;15: 166–170.
  560. Catalano M, Quelle LS, Jeric PE, Di Martino A, Maimone SM. Survival of Acinetobacter baumannii on bed rails during an outbreak and during sporadic cases. J Hosp Infect 1999;42:27–35.
  561. D’Agata EMC, Venkataraman L, DeGirolami P, Samore M. Molecular epidemiology of ceftazidime­ resistant gram-negative bacilli on inanimate surfaces and their role in cross-transmission during non- outbreak periods. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:3065–7.
  562. Jawad A, Snelling AM, Heritage J, Hawkey PM. Exceptional desiccation tolerance of Acinetobacter radioresistens. J Hosp Infect 1998;39:235–40.
  563. Jawad A, Seifert H, Snelling AM, Heritage J, Hawkey PM. Survival of Acinetobacter baumannii on dry surfaces: comparison of outbreak and sporadic isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:1938–41.
  564. Getschell-White, SI, Donowitz LG, Groschel DHM. The inanimate environment of an intensive care unit as a potential source of nosocomial bacteria: evidence for long survival of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1989;10:402–6.
  565. Loiwal V, Kumar A, Gupta P, Gomber S, Ramachandran VG.Enterobacter aerogenes outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Int 1999;41:157–61.
  566. Matsaniotis NS, Syriopoulou VP, Theodoridou MC, Tzanetou KG, Mostrou GI. Enterobacter sepsis in infants and children due to contaminated intravenous fluids. Infect Control 1984;5:471–7.
  567. Zembrzuska-Sadlowska E. The dangers of infections of the hospitalized patients with the microorganisms present in preparations and in the hospital environment. Acta Pol Pharm 1995;52:173–8.
  568. Felts SK, Schaffner W, Melly MA, Koenig MG. Sepsis caused by contaminated intravenous fluids. Ann Intern Med 1972;77:881–90.
  569. Modi N, Damjanovic V, Cooke RW. Outbreak of cephalosporin resistant Enterobacter cloacae infection in a neonatal intensive care unit. Arch Dis Child 1987;62:148–51.
  570. Graham DR, Wu E, Highsmith AK, Ginsburg ML. An outbreak of pseudobacteremia caused by Enterobacter cloacae from a phlebotomist’s vial of thrombin. Ann Intern Med 1981;95:585–8.
  571. Andersen BM, Sorlie D, Hotvedt R, et al. Multiply beta-lactam-resistant Enterobacter cloacae infections linked to the environmental flora in a unit for cardiothoracic and vascular surgery. Scand J Infect Dis 1989;21:181–91.
  572. Wisplinghoff H, Perbix W, Seifert H. Risk factors for nosocomial bloodstream infections due to Acinetobacter baumannii: a case-control study of adult burn patients. Clin Infect Dis 1999;28:59–66.
  573. Crowe M, Towner KJ, Humphreys H. Clinical and epidemiological features of an outbreak of Acinetobacter infection in an intensive therapy unit. J Med Microbiol 1995;43:55–62.
  574. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) Report: Data summary from October 1986–April 1996, issued May 1996. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:380–8.
  575. Bergogne-Bérézin E, Joly-Guillou ML. Hospital infection with Acinetobacter spp.: an increasing problem. J Hosp Infect 1991;18 (suppl A):250–5.
  576. Fagon JY, Chastre J, Hance AJ, Montravers P, Novara A, Gibert C. Nosocomial pneumonia in ventilated patients: a cohort study evaluating attributable mortality and hospital stay. Am J Med 1993;94: 281–8.
  577. (143) Seifert H, Strate A, Pulverer G. Nosocomial bacteremia due to Acinetobacter baumanii: clinical features, epidemiology, and predictors of mortality. Medicine 1995;74:340–9.
  578. Cisneros JM, Reyes MJ, Pachón J, et al. Bacteremia due to Acinetobacter baumanii: epidemiology, clinical findings, and prognostic features. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22:1026–32.
  579. Schaberg DR, Culver DH, Gaynes RP. Major trends in the microbial ecology of nosocomial infections. Am J Med 1991;91(suppl 3B):72S–5S.
  580. Wang CC, Chu ML, Ho LJ, Hwang RC. Analysis of plasmid pattern in pediatric intensive care outbreaks of nosocomial infection due to Enterobacter cloacae. J Hosp Infect 1991;19:33–40.
  581. Acolet D, Ahmet Z, Houang E, Hurley R, Kaufman ME. Enterobacter cloacae in a neonatal intensive care unit: account of an outbreak and its relationship to use of third generation cephalosporins. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:273–86.
  582. Mayhall CG, Lamb VA, Gayle WE Jr, Haynes BW Jr. Enterobacter cloacae septicemia in a burn center: epidemiology and control of an outbreak. J Infect Dis 1979;139:166–71.
  583. John JF Jr, Sharbaugh RJ, Bannister ER. Enterobacter cloacae: bacteremia, epidemiology, and antibiotic resistance. Rev Infect Dis 1982;4:13–28.
  584. McDonald C, Banerjee SN, Jarvis WR, NNIS. Seasonal variation of Acinetobacter infections: 1987–1996. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1133–7.
  585. Beck-Sague CM, Jarvis WR, Brook JH, et al. Epidemic bacteremia due to Acinetobacter baumanii in five intensive care units. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:723–33.
  586. (144) Yu VL. Serratia marcescens: historical perspective and clinical review. N Engl J Med 1979;300:887–93.
  587. Wenger PN, Tokars JI, Brennan P, et al. An outbreak of Enterobacter hormaechei infection and colonization in an intensive care nursery. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24:1243–4.
  588. Buxton AE, Anderson RL, Wedegar D, Atlas E. Nosocomial respiratory tract infection and colonization with Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Am J Med 1978;65:507–13.
  589. French GL, Casewell MW, Roncoroni AJ, Knight S, Philipps I. A hospital outbreak of antibiotic-resistant Acinetobacter anitratus: epidemiology and control. J Hosp Infect 1980;1:125–31.
  590. Guenter SH, Hendley JO, Wenzel RP. Gram-negative bacilli as nontransient flora on the hands of hospital personnel. J Clin Microbiol 1987;25:488–90.
  591. Dreyfuss D Djedaini K, Weber P, et al. Prospective study of nosocomial pneumonia and of patient and circuit colonization during mechanical ventilation with circuit changes every 48 hours versus no change. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;143:738–43.
  592. (145) Go SE, Urban C, Burns J, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of Acinetobacter infections sensitive only to polymixin B and sublactam. Lancet 1994;344:1329–32.
  593. Musa EK, Desai N, Casewell MW. The survival of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus inoculated on fingertips and on formica. J Hosp Infect 1990;15:219–27.
  594. Jawad A, Heritage J, Snelling AM, Gascoyne-Binzi DM, Hawkey PM. Influence of relative humidity and suspending menstrua on survival of Acinetobacter spp. on dry surfaces. J Clin Microbiol 1996;34:2881–7.
  595. Mulin B, Talon D, Viel JF, et al. Risk factors for nosocomial colonization with multiresistant Acinetobacter baumanii. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;14:569–76.
  596. O’Brien RJ. The epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease. Clin Chest Med 1989;10:407–18.
  597. Böttger EC, Teske A, Kirschner P, et al. Disseminated “Mycobacterium genavense” infection in patients with AIDS. Lancet 1992;340:76–80.
  598. Wallace RJ Jr, Brown BA, Griffith DE. Nosocomial outbreaks/pseudo-outbreaks caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. Ann Rev Microbiol 1998;52:453–90.
  599. Chapman JS, Dewlett HJ, Potts WE. Cutaneous reactions to unclassified mycobacterial antigens: a study of children in household contact with patients who excrete unclassified mycobacteria. Am Rev Respir Dis 1962;86:547–52.
  600. (245) Crow HE, Corpe RF, Smith CE. Is serious pulmonary disease caused by nonphotochromogenic (“atypical”) acid-fast mycobacteria communicable? Dis Chest 1961;39:372–81.
  601. Kuritsky JM, Bullen MG, Broome CV, Silcox VA, Good RC, Wallace, RJ Jr. Sternal wound infections and endocarditis due to organisms of the Mycobacterium fortuitum complex. Ann Intern Med 1983;98:938–9.
  602. Laussucq S, Baltch AL, Smith RP, et al. Nosocomial Mycobacterium fortuitum colonization from a contaminated ice machine. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:891–4.
  603. Panwalker AP, Fuhse E. Nosocomial Mycobacterium gordonae pseudoinfection from contaminated ice machines. Infect Control 1986;7:67–70.
  604. Wallace RJ Jr, Musser JM, Hull SI, et al. Diversity and sources of rapidly growing mycobacteria associated with infections following cardiac surgery. J Infect Dis 1989;159:708–16.
  605. Burns DN, Wallace RJ Jr, Schultz ME, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of respiratory tract colonization with Mycobacterium fortuitum: demonstration of the usefulness of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis in an epidemiologic investigation. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;144:1153–9.
  606. Lessing MPA, Walker MM. Fatal pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium fortuitum. J. Clin Pathol 1993;46:271–2.
  607. (149) Hoy J, Rolston K, Hopfer RL. Pseudoepidemic of Mycobacterium fortuitum in bone marrow cultures. Am J Infect Control 1987;15:268–71.
  608. Lockwood WW, Friedman C, Bus N, Pierson C, Gaynes R. An outbreak of Mycobacterium terrae in clinical specimens associated with a hospital potable water supply. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:1614–7.
  609. Sniadack DH, Ostroff SM, Karlix MA, et al. A nosocomial pseudo-outbreak of Mycobacterium xenopi due to a contaminated water supply: lessons in prevention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:636–41.
  610. (148) Cox R, deBorja K, Bach MC. A pseudo-outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infections related to bronchoscopy. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:136–7.
  611. (150) Stine TM, Harris AA, Levin S, Rivera N, Kaplan, RL. A pseudoepidemic due to atypical mycobacteria in a hospital water supply. JAMA 1987;258:809–11.
  612. (151) Bennett SN, Peterson DE, Johnson DR, Hall WN, Robinson-Dunn B, Dietrich S. Bronchoscopy­ associated Mycobacterium xenopi pseudoinfections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:245–50.
  613. Chadha R, Grover M, Sharma A, et al. An outbreak of post-surgical wound infections due to Mycobacterium abscessus. Pediatr Surg Int 1998;13:406–10.
  614. Von Reyn CF, Maslow JN, Barber TW, Falkinham JO III, Arbeit RD. Persistent colonization of potable water as a source of Mycobacterium avium infection in AIDS. Lancet 1994;343:1137–41.
  615. du Moulin GC, Stottmeier KD, Pelletier PA, Tsang AY, Hedley-Whyte J. Concentration of Mycobacterium avium by hospital hot water systems. JAMA 1988;260:1599–601.
  616. Peters M, Müller C, Rüsch-Gerdes S, et al. Isolation of atypical mycobacteria from tap water in hospitals and homes: Is this a possible source of disseminated MAC infection in AIDS patients? J Infect 1995;31:39–44.
  617. Soto LE, Bobadilla M, Villalobos Y, et al. Post-surgical nasal cellulitis outbreak due to Mycobacterium chelonae. J Hosp Infect 1991;19:99–106.
  618. Wenger JD, Spika JS, Smithwick RW, et al. Outbreak of Mycobacterium chelonae infection associated with use of jet injectors. JAMA 1990;264:373–6.
  619. Safranek TJ, Jarvis WR, Carson LA, et al. Mycobacterium chelonae wound infections after plastic surgery employing contaminated gentian violet skin-marking solution. N Eng J Med 1987;317:197–201.
  620. Gremillion DH, Mursch SB, Lerner CJ. Injection site abscesses caused by Mycobacterium chelonae. Infect Control 1983;4:25–8.
  621. Begg N, O’Mahoney M, Penny P, Richardson AE. Mycobacterium chelonae associated with a hospital hydrotherapy pool. Community Med 1986;8:348–50.
  622. Aubuchon C, Hill JJ Jr, Graham DR. Atypical mycobacterial infection of soft tissue associated with use of a hot tub. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg 1986;68–A:766–8.
  623. Kirk J, Kaminski GW. Mycobacterium marinum infection. Aust J Dermatol 1976;17:111–6.
  624. Ross BC, Johnson PDR, Oppedisano F, et al. Detection of Mycobacterium ulcerans in environmental samples during an outbreak of ulcerative disease. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997;63:4135–8.
  625. Tokars JI, McNeil MM, Tablan OC, et al. Mycobacterium gordonae pseudoinfection associated with a contaminated antimicrobial solution. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28:2765–9.
  626. Arnow PM, Bakir M, Thompson K, Bova JL. Endemic contamination of clinical specimens by Mycobacterium gordonae. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:472–6.
  627. Wright EP, Collins CH, Yates MD. Mycobacterium xenopi and Mycobacterium kansasii in a hospital water supply. J Hosp Infect 1985;6:175–8.
  628. du Moulin GC, Stottmeier KD. Waterborne mycobacteria: an increasing threat to health. ASM News 1986;10:525–9.
  629. Engel HWB, Berwald LG. The occurrence of Mycobacterium kansasii in tapwater. Tubercle 1980;61:21– 6.
  630. Kubalek I, Mysak J. The prevalence of environmental mycobacteria in drinking water supply systems in a demarcated region in Czech Republic in the period 1984–1989. Eur J Epidemiol 1996;12:471–4.
  631. Fox C, Smith F, Brogan O, et al. Non-tuberculous mycobacteria in a hospital’s piped water supply. J Hosp Infect 1992;21:152–4.
  632. Aronson T, Holtzman A, Glover N, et al. Comparison of large restriction fragments of Mycobacterium avium isolates recovered from AIDS and non-AIDS patients with those of isolates from potable water. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1008–12.
  633. Carson LA, Bland LA, Cusick LB, et al. Prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in water supplies of hemodialysis centers. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988;54:3122–5.
  634. Carson LA, Petersen NJ, Favero MS, Aguero SM. Growth characteristics of atypical mycobacteria in water and their comparative resistance to disinfectants. Appl Environ Microbiol 1978;36:839–46.
  635. Taylor RH, Falkinham III JO, Norton CD, LeChevallier MW. Chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone susceptibility of Mycobacterium avium. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000;66:1702–5.
  636. Schulze-Röbbecke R, Fischeder R. Mycobacteria in biofilms. Zbl Hyg 1989;188:385–90.
  637. Schulze-Röbbecke R, Feldmann C, Fischeder R, Janning B, Exner M, Wahl G. Dental units: an environmental study of sources of potentially pathogenic mycobacteria. Tubercle Lung Dis 1995;76:318– 23.
  638. Meisel JL, Perera DR, Meligro C, Rublin CE. Overwhelming watery diarrhea associated with Cryptosporidium in an immunosuppressed patient. Gastroenterology 1976;70:1156–60.
  639. Nime FA, Page DL, Holscher MA, Yardley JH. Acute enterocolitis in a human being infected with the protozoan Cryptosporidium. Gastroenterology 1976;70:592–8.
  640. Goldstein ST, Juranek DD, Ravenholt O, et al. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art treatment. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:459–68.
  641. Rose JB. Enteric waterborne protozoa: hazard and exposure assessment. In: Craun GF, ed. Safety of water disinfection: balancing chemical and microbial risks. Washington, DC: ILSI Press, 1993;115–26.
  642. (157) Juranek DD, Addiss D, Bartlett ME, et al. Crytosporidiosis and public health: workshop report. J AWWA 1995;87:69–80.
  643. DuPont HL, Chappell CL, Sterling CR, Okhuysen PC, Rose JB, Jakubowski W. The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers. N Engl J Med 1995;332:855–9.
  644. Okhuysen PC, Chappell CL, Crabb JH, Sterling CR, DuPont HL. Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults. J Infect Dis 1999;180:1275–81.
  645. Chappell CL, Okhuysen PC, Sterling CR, Wang C, Jakubowski W, DuPont HL. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy adults with pre-existing anti- C. parvum serum immunoglobulin G. Am J Trop Med 1999;60:157–64.
  646. Meinhardt PL, Casemore DP, Miller KB. Epidemiologic aspects of human cryptosporidiosis and the role of waterborne transmission. Epidemiol Rev 1996;18:118–36.
  647. Rose JB. Occurrence and significance of Cryptosporidium in water. JAWWA 1988;80:53–8.
  648. Rose JB, Gerba CP, Jakubowski W. Survey of potable water supplies for Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Environ Sci Technol 1991;25:1393–400.
  649. LeChevallier MW, Norton WD, Lee RG. Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in filtered drinking water supplies. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991;57:2617–21.
  650. Mackenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public drinking water supply. N Engl J Med 1994;331:161–7.
  651. Atherton F, Newman CP, Casemore DP. An outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis associated with a public water supply in the UK. Epidemiol Infect 1995;115:123–31.
  652. Hayes EB, Matte TD, O’Brien TR, et al. Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1372–5.
  653. Neill MA, Rice SK, Ahmad NV, Flanigan TP. Cryptosporidiosis: an unrecognized cause of diarrhea in elderly hospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 1996;22:168–70.
  654. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Water as a reservoir of nosocomial pathogens. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:609–16.
  655. Chadwick P. The epidemiological significance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in hospital sinks. Can J Public Health 1976;67:323–8.
  656. Cordes LG, Wiesenthal AM, Gorman GW, et al. Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from hospital shower heads. Ann Intern Med 1981;94:195–7.
  657. Bollin GE, Plouffe JF, Para MF, Hackman B. Aerosols containing Legionella pneumophila generated by shower heads and hot-water faucets. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985;50:1128–31.
  658. Weber DJ, Rutala WA, Blanchet CN, Jordan M, Gergen MF. Faucet aerators: a source of patient colonization with Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Am J Infect Control 1999;27:59–63.
  659. Kappstein I, Grundmann H, Hauer T, Niemeyer C. Aerators as a reservoir of Acinetobacter junii: an outbreak of bacteraemia in paediatric oncology patients. J Hosp Infect 2000;44:27–30.
  660. Dennis PJL, Wright AE, Rutter DA, Death JE, Jones BPC. Legionella pneumophila in aerosols from shower baths. J Hyg (Camb) 1984;93:349–53.
  661. (153) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ASHRAE Guideline 12-2000: minimizing the risk of legionellosis associated with building water systems. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE, Inc., 2000;1–16.
  662. Newsom SWB. Microbiology of hospital toilets. Lancet 1972;2:700–3.
  663. Gerba CP, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Microbiological hazards of household toilets: droplet production and the fate of residual organisms. Appl Microbiol 1975;30:229–37.
  664. (152) Hlady WG, Mullen RC, Mintz CS, Shelton BG, Hopkins RS, Daikos GL. Outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease linked to a decorative fountain by molecular epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1993;138:555–62.
  665. Rees JC, Allen KD. Holy water — A risk factor for hospital-acquired infection. J Hosp Infect 1996;32:51– 5.
  666. (226) Favero MS, Petersen NJ, Boyer KM, Carson LA, Bond WW. Microbial contamination of renal dialysis systems and associated risks. ASAIO Trans 1974;20:175–83.
  667. (227) Favero MS, Petersen NJ, Carson LA, Bond WW, Hindman SH. Gram-negative bacteria in hemodialysis systems. Health Lab Sci 1975;12:321–34.
  668. (228) Favero MS, Petersen NJ. Microbiologic guidelines for hemodialysis systems. Dialysis Transplant 1979;6:34–6.
  669. Griffiths PA, Babb JR, Bradley CR, Fraise AP. Glutaraldehyde-resistant Mycobacterium chelonae from endoscope washer disinfectors. J Appl Microbiol 1997;82:519–26.
  670. Phillips G, McEwan H, Butler J. Quality of water in washer-disinfectors. J Hosp Infect 1995;31:152–4.
  671. (259) Cooke RPD, Whymant-Morris A, Umasankar RS, Goddard SV. Bacteria-free water for automatic washer-disinfectors: an impossible dream? J Hosp Infect 1998;48:63–5.
  672. Humphreys H, Lee JV. Water quality for endoscopy washer-disinfectors. J Hosp Infect 1999;42:76–8.
  673. Muscarella LF. Are all sterilization processes alike? AORN J 1998;67:966–70, 973–6.
  674. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. MAUDE database. Available at: MAUDE – Manufacturer and User Facility Device Experience  [Current version of this document may differ from original.]
  675. Alvarado CJ, Stolz SM, Maki DG. Nosocomial infections from contaminated endoscopes: a flawed automated endoscope washer — an investigation using molecular epidemiology. Am J Med 1991;91 (Suppl 3b):272–80.
  676. Abrutyn E, Goodhart GL, Roos K, Anderson R, Buxton A. Acinetobacter calcoaceticus outbreak associated with peritoneal dialysis. Am J Epidemiol 1978;107:328–35.
  677. Mader JT, Reinarz JA. Peritonitis during peritoneal dialysis — the role of the preheating water bath. J Chronic Dis 1978;31:635–41.
  678. Kosatsky T, Kleeman J. Superficial and systemic illness related to a hot tub. Am J Med 1985;79:10–2.
  679. McGuckin MB, Thorpe RJ, Abrutyn E. Hydrotherapy: An outbreak of Pseudomonas aeruginosa wound infections related to Hubbard tank treatments. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1981;62:283–5.
  680. (243) Koepke GH, Christopher RP. Contamination of whirlpool baths during treatment of infected wounds. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1965;46:261–3.
  681. Miller JK, LaForest NT, Hedberg M, Chapman V. Surveillance and control of Hubbard tank bacterial contaminants. Phys Ther 1972;50:1482–6.
  682. Nelson RM, Reed JR, Kenton DM. Microbiological evaluation of decontamination procedures for hydrotherapy tanks. Phys Ther 1972;52:919–23.
  683. Page CF. The whirlpool bath and cross-infection. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1954;35:97–8.
  684. Newsom SWB. Hospital infection from contaminated ice. Lancet 1968;2:620–2.
  685. Ravn P, Lundgren JD, Kjaeldgaard P, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients. Br Med J 1991;302:277–80.
  686. Bangsborg JM, Uldum S, Jensen JS, Bruun BG. Nosocomial legionellosis in three heart-lung transplant patients: case reports and environmental observations. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;14:99–104.
  687. (246) Stout JE, Yu VL, Muraca P. Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from the cold water of hospital ice machines: implications for origin and transmission of the organism. Infect Control 1985;6:141–6.
  688. Cross DF, Benchimol A, Dimond EG. The faucet aerator — a source of Pseudomonas infection. N Engl J Med 1966;274:1430–1.
  689. Chryseobacterium (Flavobacterium) meningosepticum outbreak associated with colonization of water taps in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Hosp Infect 2001;47:188–92.
  690. Brown DG, Baublis J. Reservoirs of Pseudomonas in an intensive care unit for newborn infants: Mechanisms of control. J Pediatr 1977;90:453–7.
  691. Perryman FA, Flournoy DJ. Prevalence of gentamicin- and amikacin-resistant bacteria in sink drains. J Clin Microbiol 1980;12:79–83.
  692. Doring G, Horz M, Ortelt J, Grupp H, Wolz C. Molecular epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an intensive care unit. Epidemiol Infect 1993;110:427–36.
  693. Teres D, Schweers P, Bushnell LS, Hedley-Whyte J, Feingold DS. Sources of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in a respiratory/surgical intensive care unit. Lancet 1973;1:415–7.
  694. Barbeau J, Tanguay R, Faucher E, et al. Multiparametric analysis of waterline contamination in dental units. Appl Environ Microbiol 1996;62:3954–9.
  695. Atlas RM, Williams JF, Huntington MK. Legionella contamination of dental-unit waters. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995;61:1208–13.
  696. Fayle SA, Pollard MA. Decontamination of dental unit water systems: a review of current recommendations. Br Dent J 1996;181:369–72.
  697. Pien FD, Bruce AE. Nosocomial Ewingella americana bacteremia in an intensive care unit. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:111–2.
  698. Stiles GM, Singh L, Imazaki G, Stiles QR. Thermodilution cardiac output studies as a cause of prosthetic valve bacterial endocarditis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1984;88:1035–7.
  699. Tyndall RL, Lyle MM, Ironside KS. The presence of free-living amoebae in portable and stationary eye wash stations. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1987;48:933–4.
  700. Bowman EK, Vass AA, Mackowski R, Owen BA, Tyndall RL. Quantitation of free-living amoebae and bacterial populations in eyewash stations relative to flushing frequency. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1996;57:626–33.
  701. Siegman-Igra Y, Shalem A, Berger SA, Livio S, Michaeli D. Should potted plants be removed from hospital wards? J Hosp Infect 1986;7:82–5.
  702. (309) Kates SG, McGinley KJ, Larson EL, Leyden JJ. Indigenous multiresistant bacteria from flowers in hospital and nonhospital environments. Am J Infect Control 1991;19:156–61.
  703. Zanetti F, Stampi S, De L, et al. Water characteristics associated with the occurrence of Legionella pneumophila in dental units. Eur J Oral Sci 2000;108:22–8.
  704. Peel MM, Calwell JM, Christopher PJ, Harkness JL, Rouch GJ. Legionella pneumophila and water temperatures in Australian hospitals. Aust NZ J Med 1985;15:38–41.
  705. Groothuis DG, Veenendaal HR, Dijkstra HL. Influence of temperature on the number of Legionella pneumophila in hot water systems. J Appl Bacteriol 1985;59:529–36.
  706. Plouffe JF, Webster LR, Hackman B. Relationship between colonization of a hospital building with Legionella pneumophila and hot water temperatures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;46:769–70.
  707. (212) Alary Ma, Joly JR. Factors contributing to the contamination of hospital water distribution systems by Legionellae. J Infect Dis 1992;165:565–9.
  708. U.K.Health & Safety Executive. The control of legionellosis in hot and cold water systems. Supplement to the control of Legionellosis, including Legionnaires’ disease. London: Health & Safety Executive Office, 1998;1–4.
  709. (167) Marrie TJ, Haldane D, Bezanson G, Peppard R. Each water outlet is a unique ecologic niche for Legionella pneumophila. Epidemiol Infect 1992;108:261–70.
  710. (154) Snyder MB, Siwicki M, Wireman J, et al. Reduction of Legionella pneumophila through heat flushing followed by continuous supplemental chlorination of hospital hot water. J Infect Dis 1990;162:127–32.
  711. (155) Ezzeddine H, Van Ossel C, Delmee M, Wauters G. Legionella spp. in a hospital hot water system: effect of control measures. J Hosp Infect 1989;13:121–31.
  712. Reichert M. Automatic washers/disinfectors for flexible endoscopes. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:497–9.
  713. (45) Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Hospital accreditation standards, 2001: environment of care. Oakbrook Terrace, IL: JCAHO Press, 2001;193–220.
  714. (161) Best M, Yu VL, Stout J, Goetz A, Muder RR, Taylor F. Legionellaceae in the hospital water supply: epidemiologic link with disease and evaluation of a method for control of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease and Pittsburgh pneumonia. Lancet 1983;2:307–10.
  715. CDC. Emergency Response Planning and Coordination. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/nceh/emergency/emergency.htm]
  716. McGlown KJ, Fottler MD. The impact of flooding on the delivery of hospital services in the southeastern United States. Health Care Manage Rev 1996;21:55–71.
  717. Fisher, HL. Emergency evacuation of the Denver Veteran’s Administration Medical Center. Milit Med 1986;151:154–61.
  718. Peters, MS. Hospitals respond to water loss during the midwest floods of 1993: preparedness and improvisation. J Emerg Med 1996;14:345–50.
  719. (156) Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Comprehensive Accreditation manual for hospitals: the official handbook (CAH00SJ). Oakbrook Terrace, IL: JCAHO Press, 2000.
  720. Hargreaves J, Shireley L, Hansen S, et al. Bacterial contamination associated with electronic faucets: a new risk for healthcare facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:202–5.
  721. (158) CDC. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1997. Atlanta, GA: Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998.
  722. Stout JE, Best ME, Yu VL. Susceptibility of members of the family Legionellaceae to thermal stress: implications for heat eradication methods in water distribution systems. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986;52:396–9.
  723. Bornstein N, Vieilly C, Nowiki M, Paucod JC, Fleurette J. Epidemiological evidence of legionellosis transmission through domestic hot water supply systems and possibilities of control. Isr J Med Sci 1986;13:39–40.
  724. (162) Meenhorst PL, Reingold AL, Groothuis DG, et al. Water-related nosocomial pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila serogroups 1 and 10. J Infect Dis 1985;152:356–64.
  725. (216) Mandel AS, Sprauer MA, Sniadack DH, Ostroff SM. State regulation in hospital water temperature. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:642–5.
  726. (168) Department of Health. The control of Legionella in health care premises: a code of practice. London: HMSO, 1991.
  727. (169) Helms CM, Massanari RM, Wenzel RP, et al. Legionnaires’ disease associated with a hospital water system: a five-year progress report on continuous hyperchlorination. JAMA 1988;259:2423–7.
  728. (170) Edelstein PH, Whittaker RE, Kreiling RL, Howell, CL. Efficacy of ozone in eradication of Legionella pneumophila from hospital plumbing fixtures. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982;44:1330–4.
  729. (171) Muraca P, Stout JE, Yu, VL. Comparative assessment of chlorine, heat, ozone, and UV light for killing Legionella pneumophila within a model plumbing system. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987;53:447– 53.
  730. (172) Domingue EL, Tyndall RL, Mayberry WR, Pancorbo OC. Effects of three oxidizing biocides on Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988;54:741–7.
  731. (173) Landeen LK, Yahya MT, Gerba CP. Efficacy of copper and silver ions and reduced levels of free chlorine in inactivation of Legionella pneumophila. Appl Environ Microbiol 1989;55:3045–50.
  732. (174) Matulonis U, Rosenfeld CS, Shadduck RK. Prevention of Legionella infections in bone marrow transplant unit: multifaceted approach to decontamination of a water system. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:571–83.
  733. (175) Liu Z, Stout JE, Tedesco L, et al. Controlled evaluation of copper-silver ionization in eradicating Legionella pneumophila from a hospital water distribution system. J Infect Dis 1994;169:919–22.
  734. (176) Margolin AB. Control of microorganisms in source water and drinking water. In: Hurst CJ, Knudsen GR, McInerney MJ, Stetzenback LD, Walter MV, eds. Manual of environmental microbiology. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1997;195–202.
  735. (177) Freije MR. Legionella control in health care facilities: a guide for minimizing risk. HC Information Resources, Inc. 1996;65–75.
  736. (178) Yu-sen E, Lin R, Vidic D, Stout JE, Yu VL. Legionella in water distribution systems. J AWWA 1998;90:112–21.
  737. (179) Biurrun A, Caballero L, Pelaz C, Leon E, Gago A. Treatment of a Legionella pneumophila– colonized water distribution system using copper-silver ionization and continuous chlorination. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:426–8.
  738. (180) Goetz A, Yu VL. Copper-silver ionization: cautious optimism for Legionella disinfection and implications for environmental culturing. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:449–51.
  739. (181) Stout JE, Lin YS, Goetz AM, Muder RR. Controlling Legionella in hospital water systems: experience with the superheat-and-flush method and copper-silver ionization. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:911–4.
  740. (182) Walker JT, Mackerness CW, Mallon D, Makin T, Williets T, Keevil CW. Control of Legionella pneumophila in a hospital water system by chlorine dioxide. J Ind Microbiol 1995;15:384–90.
  741. (183) Hambidge A. Reviewing efficacy of alternative water treatment techniques. Health Estate 2001;55:23–5.
  742. (184) Rohr U, Senger M, Selenka F, Turley R, Wilhelm M. Four years of experience with silver-copper ionization for control of Legionella in a German university hospital hot water plumbing system. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29:1507–11.
  743. (185) Cunliffe DA. Inactivation of Legionella pneumophila by monochloramine. J Appl Bacteriol 1990;68:453–9.
  744. (186) Kirmeyer GJ, Foust GW, Pierson GL, Simmler JJ, LeChevalier MW. Optimizing chloramine treatment. Denver, CO: American Water Works Research Foundation, 1993.
  745. (187) Kool JL, Carpenter JC, Fields BS. Effect of monochloramine disinfection of municipal drinking water on risk of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease. Lancet 1999;353:272–7.
  746. (188) Kool JL, Bergmire-Sweat D, Butler JC, et al. Hospital characteristics associated with colonization of water systems by Legionella and risk of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: a cohort study of 15 hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:798–805.
  747. (213) Yu VL, Beam TR Jr, Lumish RM, et al. Routine culturing for Legionella in the hospital environment may be a good idea: a three-hospital prospective study. Am J Med Sci 1987;294:97–9.
  748. Allegheny County Health Department. Approaches to prevention and control of Legionella infection in Allegheny County health care facilities. Pittsburgh, PA: Allegheny County Health Department, 1997;1–13.
  749. Goetz AM, Stout JE, Jacobs SL, et al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease discovered in community hospitals following cultures of the water system: seek and ye shall find. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:8–11.
  750. Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Report of the Maryland Scientific Working Group to study Legionella in the water systems in healthcare institutions. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.dhmh.state.md.us/html/legionella.htm]
  751. Yu VL. Nosocomial legionellosis: Current epidemiologic issues. In: Remington JS, Swartz MN, eds. Current clinical topics in infectious diseases.. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1986;239–53.
  752. Vickers RM, Yu VL, Hanna SS. Determinants of Legionella pneumophila contamination of water distribution systems: 15-hospital prospective study. Infect Control 1987;8:357–63.
  753. (214) Tobin JO, Swann RA, Bartlett CLR. Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from water systems: methods and preliminary results. Br Med J 1981;282:515–7.
  754. Marrie TJ, Bezanson G, Fox J, Kuehn R, Haldane D, Birbridge S. Dynamics of Legionella pneumophila in the potable water of one floor of a hospital. In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1993;238–40.
  755. Plouffe JF, Para MF, Maher WE, Hackman B, Webster L. Subtypes of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 associated with different attack rates. Lancet 1983;2:649–50.
  756. Fraser DW. Sources of legionellosis. In: Thornsberry C, Balows A, Feeley JC, Jakubowski W, eds. Legionella: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press,1994:277–80.
  757. Dourmon E, Bibb WF, Rajagopalan P, Desplaces N, McKinney RM. Monoclonal antibody reactivity as a virulence marker for Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 strain. J Infect Dis 1992;165:569–73.
  758. Brundrett GW. Guides on avoiding Legionnaires’disease. In: Legionella and building services. Oxford, UK: Butterworth Heineman, 1992;346–73.
  759. (191) Kugler JW, Armitage JO, Helms CM, et al. Nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: occurrence in recipients of bone marrow transplants. Am J Med 1983;74:281–8.
  760. Lepine LA, Jernigan DB, Butler JC, et al. A recurrent outbreak of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease detected by urinary antigen testing: evidence for long-term colonization of a hospital plumbing system. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:905–10.
  761. Barbaree JM. Selecting a subtyping technique for use in investigations of legionellosis epidemics. In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1993;169–72.
  762. Joly JR, McKinney RM, Tobin JO, Bibb WF, Watkins ID, Ramsay D. Development of a standardized subgrouping scheme for Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 using monoclonal antibodies. J Clin Microbiol 1986;23:768–71.
  763. (209) Schoonmaker D, Helmberger T, Birkhead G. Comparison of ribotyping and restriction enzyme analysis using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis for distinguishing Legionella pneumophila isolates obtained during a nosocomial outbreak. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1491–8.
  764. (163) Johnston JM, Latham RH, Meier FA, et al. Nosocomial outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease: molecular epidemiology and disease control measures. Infect Control 1987;853–8.
  765. Best MG, Goetz A, Yu VL. Heat eradication measures for control of nosocomial Legionnaires’ disease: Implementation, education, and cost analysis. Infect Control 1984;12:26–30.
  766. (164) Muraca PW, Yu VL, Goetz A. Disinfection of water distribution systems for Legionella: a review of application procedures and methodologies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:79–88.
  767. (210) Knirsch CA, Jakob K, Schoonmaker D, et al. An outbreak of Legionella micdadei pneumonia in transplant patients: evalutaion, molecular epidemiology, and control. Am J Med 2000;108:290–5.
  768. (211) CDC. Sustained transmission of nosocomial Legionnaires’ Disease — Arizona and Ohio. MMWR 1997;46:416–21.
  769. 218) Patterson WJ, Hay J, Seal DV, McLuckie JC. Colonization of transplant unit water supplies with Legionella and protozoa: precautions required to reduce the risk of legionellosis. J Hosp Infect 1997;37:7– 17.
  770. U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA technical manual, Section III, Chapter 7. Legionellosis. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.osha-slc.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_7.html]
  771. Rudnick JR, Beck-Sague CM, Anderson RL, Schable B, Miller JM, Jarvis WR. Gram-negative bacteremia in open-heart surgery patients traced to probable tap-water contamination of pressure-monitoring equipment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:281–5.
  772. Miller RP. Cooling towers and evaporative condensers. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:667–70.
  773. Butler JC, Breiman RF. Legionellosis. In: Evans AS, Brachman PS, eds. Bacterial infections of humans, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Plenum Medical, 1998;355–76.
  774. Witherell LE, Novick LF, Stone KM, et al. Legionella in cooling towers. J Environ Health 1986;49:134–9.
  775. Cordes LG, Fraser DW, Skaliy P, et al. Legionnaires’ disease outbreak at an Atlanta, Georgia country club: evidence for spread from an evaporative condenser. Am J Epidemiol 1980;111:425–31.
  776. Kaufmann AF, McDade JE, Patton CM, et al. Pontiac fever: isolation of the etiologic agent (Legionella pneumophila) and demonstration of its mode of transmission. Am J Epidemiol 1981;114:337–47.
  777. Morton S, Bartlett CLR, Bibby LF, Hutchinson DM, Dyer JV, Dennis PJ. Outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease from a cooling water system in a power station. Br J Indust Med 1986;43:630–5.
  778. Friedman S, Spitalny K, Barbaree J, Faur Y, McKinney R. Pontiac fever outbreak associated with a cooling tower. Am J Public Health 1987;77:568–72.
  779. Addiss DG, Davis JP, LaVenture M, Wand PJ, Hutchinson MA, McKinney RM. Community-acquired Legionnaires’disease associated with a cooling tower: evidence for longer-distance transport of Legionella pneumophila. Am J Epidemiol 1989;130:557–68.
  780. Keller DW, Hajjeh R, DeMaria A Jr, et al. Community outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease: an investigation confirming the potential for cooling towers to transmit Legionella species. Clin Inf Dis 1996;22:257–61.
  781. Pastoris MC, Ciceroni L, Lo Monaco R, et al. Molecular epidemiology of an outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease associated with a cooling tower in Genova-Sestri Ponente, Italy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;16:883–92.
  782. Brown CM, Nuorti PJ, Breiman RF, et al. A community outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease linked to hospital cooling towers: an epidemiological method to calculate dose of exposure. Inter J Epidemiol 1999;28:353–9.
  783. Broadbent CR. Legionella in cooling towers: Practical research, design, treatment, and control guidelines. In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press,1993;217–22.
  784. (222) Bhopal RS, Barr G. Maintenance of cooling towers following two outbreaks of Legionnaires’ disease in a city. Epidemiol Infect 1990;104:29–38.
  785. CDC. Suggested health and safety guidelines for public spas and hot tubs. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, 1985. Publication No. 99–960.
  786. (221) World Health Organization. Environmental aspects of the control of Legionellosis, 14th ed. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization,1986. Schriftenr Ver Wasser Boden Lufthyg 1993;91:249–52. (German)
  787. (223) World Health Organization. Epidemiology, prevention, and control of legionellosis: memorandum from a WHO meeting. Bull WHO 1990;68:155–64.
  788. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. American National Standard Hemodialysis Systems ANSI/AAMI RD5-1981, Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Arlington, VA: AAMI, 1982.
  789. (229) Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. American National Standard Hemodialysis Systems ANSI/AAMI RD5-1992, Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Arlington, VA: AAMI, 1993.
  790. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Reuse of hemodialyzers ROH-1986, Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Arlington, VA: AAMI, 1986.
  791. (230) Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. American National Standard Reuse of hemodialyzers ANSI/AAMI RD47-1993, Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Arlington, VA: AAMI, 1993.
  792. (236) Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Water treatment equipment for hemodialysis applications. ANSI/AAMI RD62-2001, Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Arlington, VA: AAMI, 2001.
  793. Tokars JI, Miller ER, Alter MJ, Arduino MJ. National surveillance of dialysis associated diseases in the United States, 1997. Semin Dialysis 2000;13:75–85.
  794. Hindman SH, Carson LA, Petersen NJ, et. al. Pyrogenic reactions during hemodialysis caused by extramural endotoxin. Lancet 1975;2:732–4.
  795. Stamm JE, Engelhard WE, Parson JE. Microbiological study of water softener resins. Appl Microbiol 1969;18:376–86.
  796. Alter MJ, Favero MS, Miller JK, Coleman BJ, Bland LA. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1988. ASAIO Trans 1990;36:107–18.
  797. Tokars JI, Alter MJ, Favero MS, Moyer LA, Bland LA. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1990. ASAIO J 1993;39:71–80.
  798. Tokars JI, Alter MJ, Favero MS, Moyer LA, Bland LA. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1991. ASAIO J 1993;39:966–75.
  799. Tokars JI, Alter MJ, Favero MS, Moyer LA, Bland LA. National surveillance of dialysis-associated diseases in the United States, 1993. ASAIO J 1996;42:219–29.
  800. (231) Petersen NJ, Boyer KM, Carson LA, Favero MS. Pyrogenic reactions from inadequate disinfection of a dialysis unit distribution system. Dialysis Transpl 1978;7:52–7.
  801. Gazenfeldt-Gazit E, Elaihou HE. Endotoxin antibodies in patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Israel J Med Sci 1969;5:1032–6.
  802. Laude-Sharp M, Canoff M, Simard L, Pusineri C, Kazatchkine M, Haeffner-Cavaillon N. Induction of IL-1 during hemodialysis: transmembrane passage of intact endotoxin (LPS). Kidney Int 1990;38:1089–94.
  803. Arduino MJ, Bland LA, McAllister SK, Favero MS. The effects of endotoxin contaminated dialysate and polysulfone or cellulosic membranes on the release of TNFα during simulated dialysis. Artif Organs 1995;19:880–6.
  804. Greisman SE, Hornick RB. Comparative pyrogenic reactivity of rabbit and man to bacterial endotoxin. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1969;131:1154–8.
  805. Weary ME, Donohue G, Pearson FC, Story K. Relative potencies of four reference endotoxin standards as measured by the Limulus amoebocyte lysate and USP rabbit pyrogen tests. Appl Environ Microbiol 1980;40:1148–51.
  806. (239) Bland LA, Ridgeway MR, Aguero SM, Carson LA, Favero MS. Potential bacteriologic and endotoxin hazards associated with liquid bicarbonate concentrate. ASAIO Trans 1987;33:542–5.
  807. (232) Dawids SG, Vejlsgaard R. Bacteriological and clinical evaluation of different dialysate delivery systems. Acta Med Scand 1976;199:151–5.
  808. Favero MS, Alter MJ, Tokars JI, Arduino MJ. Dialysis-associated infections and their control. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven, 1998;357–80.
  809. (233)Kidd EE. Bacterial contamination of dialyzing fluid of artificial kidney. Br Med J 1964;1:880–2.
  810. Jones DM, Tobin BM, Harlow GR, et al. Bacteriological studies of the modified kiil dialyzer. Br Med J 1970;3:135–7.
  811. (240) Raij L, Shapiro FL, Michael AF. Endotoxemia in febrile reactions during hemodialysis. Kidney Int 1973;4:57–60.
  812. Vanholder R, Van Haecke E, Veys N, et al. Endotoxin transfer through dialysis membranes: small versus large-pore membranes. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1992;7:333–9.
  813. Evans RC, Holmes CJ. In vitro study of the transfer of cytokine-inducing substances across selected high- flux hemodialysis membranes. Blood Purif 1991;9:92–101.
  814. Lonnemann G, Behme TC, Lenzer B, et al. Permeability of dialyzer membranes to TNFα-inducing substances derived from water bacteria. Kidney Int 1992;42:61–8.
  815. UreZa P, Herbelin A, Zingraff J, et al. Permeability of cellulosic and non-cellulosic membranes to endotoxin subunits and cytokine production during in-vitro hemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1992;7:16–28.
  816. (241) Bommer J, Becker KP, Urbaschek R. Potential transfer of endotoxin across high-flux polysulfone membranes. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996;7:883–8.
  817. Yamagami S, Adachi T, Sugimura, T, et al. Detection of endotoxin antibody in long-term dialysis patients. Int J Artif Organs 1990;13:205–10.
  818. Arduino MJ. CDC investigations of noninfectious outbreaks of adverse events in hemodialysis facilities, 1979–1999. Semin Dialysis 2000;13:86–91.
  819. Roth V, Jarvis WR. Outbreaks of infection and/or pyrogenic reactions in dialysis patients. Semin Dialysis 2000;13:92–100.
  820. Gordon SM, Tipple MME, Bland LA, Jarvis WR. Pyrogenic reactions associated with reuse of disposable hollow-fiber hemodialyzers. JAMA 1988;260:2077–81.
  821. Alter MJ, Tokars JI, Arduino MJ. Nosocomial infections in hemodialysis units — strategies for control. In: Owen WF, Periera BJG, Sayegh MH, eds. Dialysis and transplantation: a companion to Brenner and Rector’s “The Kidney.” Orlando, FL: WB Saunders Company, 1999;337–57.
  822. Bernick JJ, Port FK, Favero MS, Brown DG. Bacterial and endotoxin permeability of hemodialysis membranes. Kidney Int 1979;16:491–6.
  823. Bommer J, Becker KP, Urbaschek R, Ritz E, Urbaschek B. No evidence for endotoxin transfer across high flux polysulfone membranes. Clin Nephrol 1987;27:278–82.
  824. Schindler R, Lonnemann G, Schaeffer J, et al. The effect of ultrafiltered dialysate on the cellular content of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Nephron 1994;68:229–33.
  825. Akrum RAE, Frolich M, Gerritsen AF, et al. Improvement of chronic inflammatory state in hemodialysis patients by the use of ultrapure water for dialysate. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997;8:226A.
  826. Quellhorst E. Methods of Hemodialysis. Nieren U Hochdruck 1998;27:35–41.
  827. Baz M, Durand C, Ragon A, et al. Using ultrapure water in hemodialysis delays carpal tunnel syndrome. Int J Artif Organs 1991;14:681–5.
  828. Schwalbe S, Holzhauer M, Schaeffer J, et al. β2-Microglobulin associated amyloidosis: a vanishing complication of long-term hemodialysis? Kidney Int 1997;52:1077–83.
  829. (242) Arduino MJ, Favero MS. Microbiologic aspects of hemodialysis: water quality for hemodialysis. AAMI Monograph WQD-1998. Arlington, VA: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, 1998.
  830. Leypoldt JK, Schmidt B, Gurland, HJ. Measurement of backfiltration rates during hemodialysis with highly permeable membranes. Blood Purif 1991;9:74–84.
  831. Carson LA, Bland LA, Cusick LB, Collin S, Favero MS, Bolan G. Factors affecting endotoxin levels in fluids associated with hemodialysis procedures. In: Novitsky TJ, Watson SW, eds. Detection of bacterial endotoxins with the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate Test. New York, NY: Alan R. Liss, 1987;223–4.
  832. Anderson RL, Holland BW, Carr JK, Bond WW, Favero MS. Effect of disinfectants on pseudomonads colonized on the interior surface of PVC pipes. Am J Public Health 1990;80:17–21.
  833. Bland LA, Favero MS. Microbial contamination control strategies for hemodialysis. JCAHO Plant Tech Manage Series 1989;3:30–6.
  834. (237) Bland LA. Microbiological and endotoxin assays of hemodialysis fluids. Adv Renal Replacement Ther 1995;2:70–9.
  835. (238) Arduino MJ, Bland LA, Aguero SM, Carson LA, Ridgeway M, Favero MS. Comparison of microbiologic assay methods for hemodialysis fluids. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:592–4.
  836. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. American national standard water treatment equipment for hemodialysis applications. ANSI/AAMI RD62-1999. Arlington, VA: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, 1999.
  837. Arduino MJ. How should dialyzers be reprocessed? Semin Dialysis 1998;11:282–4.
  838. Jochimsen EM, Frenette C, Delorme M, et al. A cluster of bloodstream infections and pyrogenic reactions among hemodialysis patients traced to dialysis machine waste-handling option units. Am J Nephrol 1998;18:485–9.
  839. Wang SA, Levine RB, Carson LA, et al. An outbreak of gram-negative bacteremia in hemodialysis patients traced to hemodialysis machine waste drain ports. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:746–51.
  840. National Institutes of Health. U.S. Renal Diseases Survey: 1999 Annual Data Report. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Division of Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases, 1999.
  841. Monsen T, Olofson C, Ronnmark M, Wistrom J. Clonal spread of staphylococci among patients with peritonitis associated with continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. ASAIO J 2000;57:613–8.
  842. Band JD, Ward JI, Fraser DW, et al. Peritonitis due to a Mycobacterium chelonae-like organism associates with intermittent chronic peritoneal dialysis. J Infect Dis 1982;145:9–17.
  843. Monsen T, Crabtree JH, Siddiqui RA, et al. Dialysis catheter infection related peritonitis: incidence and time dependent risk. ASAIO J 1999;45:574–80.
  844. Vera G, Lew SQ. Mycobacterium fortuitum peritonitis in two patients receiving continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Am J Nephrol 1999;19:586–9.
  845. Soriano F, Rodriguez-Tudela JL, Gomez-Garces JL, Velo M. Two possibly related cases of Mycobacterium fortuitum peritonitis in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1989;8:895–7.
  846. Szeto CC, Li PK, Leung CB, Yu AW, Lui SF, Lai NK. Xanthomonas maltophila peritonitis in uremic patients receiving ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 1997;29:991–5.
  847. Panlilio AL, Beck-Sague CM, Siegel JD, et al. Infections and pseudoinfections due to povidone-iodine solution contaminated with Pseudomonas cepacia. Clin Infect Dis 1992;14:1078–83.
  848. Riebel W, Frantz N, Adelstein D, Spanguolo PJ. Corynebacterium JK: a cause of nosocomial device- related infection. Rev Infect Dis 1986;8:42–9.
  849. Radix AE, Bieluch VM, Graeber CW. Peritonitis caused by Monilia sitophila in a patient undergoing peritoneal dialysis. Int J Artif Organs 1996;19:218–20.
  850. Banerjee S, Marwaha RK, Bajwa RP. Fungal peritonitis complicating peritoneal dialysis. Indian Pediatr 1995;32:693–7.
  851. Bergeson E, Denis R, Cartier P. Peritoneal dialysis: peritonitis and catheter infections. Annales de Chirugie 1996;50:606–12. (French)
  852. Troidle L, Kliger AS, Goldie SJ, et al. Continuous peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis of nosocomial origin. Perit Dialysis International 1996;16:505–10.
  853. Smith CA. Reduced incidence of peritonitis by utilizing “flush before fill” in APD. Adv Perit Dialysis 1997;13:224–6.
  854. Valeri A, Radhakrishnan J, Vernocchi L, Carmichael LD, Stern L. The epidemiology of peritonitis in acute peritoneal dialysis: a comparison between open- and closed drainage systems. Am J Kidney Dis 1993;21:300–9.
  855. Stamm WE, Colelle JJ, Anderson RL, Dixon RE. Indwelling arterial catheters as a source of nosocomial bacteremia: an outbreak caused by Flavobacterium species. N Engl J Med 1975;292:1099-102.
  856. Schimpff SC. Gram negative bacteremia. Support Care Cancer 1993;1:5–18.
  857. Graman PS, Quinlan GA, Rank JA. Nosocomial legionellosis traced to contaminated ice. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:637–40.
  858. Gahrn-Hansen B, Uldum SA, Schmidt J, Nielsen B, Birkeland SA, Jorgensen KA. [Nosocomial Legionella pneumophila infection in a nephrology department]. Ugeskrift for Laeger 1995;157:590-4. (German)
  859. Wilson IG, Hogg GM, Barr JG. Microbiological quality of ice in hospital and community. J Hosp Infect 1997;36:171–80.
  860. Spencer RC. The emergence of epidemic, multiple-antibiotic-resistant Stenotrophomonas (Xanthomonas) maltophilia and Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia. J Hosp Infect 1995;30(suppl):453–64.
  861. (248) Cannon RO, Poliner JR, Hirschhorn RB, et al. A multistate outbreak of Norwalk virus gastroenteritis associated with consumption of commercial ice. J Infect Dis 1991;164:860-3.
  862. (249) Khan AS, Moe CL, Glass RI, et al. Norwalk virus-associated gastroenteritis traced to ice consumption aboard a cruise ship in Hawaii: comparison and application of molecular method-based assays. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:318-22.
  863. (244) CDC. Outbreak of viral gastroenteritis — Pennsylvania and Delaware. MMWR 1987;36:709-11.
  864. Quick R, Paugh K, Addiss D, Kobayashi J, Baron R. Restaurant-associated outbreak of giardiasis. J Infect Dis 1992;166:673-6.
  865. Hedberg CW, White KE, Johnson JA, et al. An outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis infection at a fast food restaurant: implications for foodhandler-associated transmission. J Infect Dis 1991;164:1135–40.
  866. Burnett IA, Weeks GR, Harris DM. A hospital study of ice-making machines: their bacteriology, design, usage, and upkeep. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:305–13.
  867. Petersen NJ. Don’t culture the ice machines. Hosp Infect Control 1982;9:8–9.
  868. CDC. Sanitary care and maintenance of ice chests and ice machines. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 1979. Publication No. 00-2384.
  869. (247) Manangan LP, Anderson RL, Arduino MJ, Bond WW. Sanitary care and maintenance of ice-storage chests and ice-making machines in healthcare facilities. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:111–2.
  870. Anonymous. Ice as a source of infection. CDR Weekly 1993;3:241.
  871. Cardaney CR, Rodeheaver GT, Horowitz, JH, Kenney JG, Edlich RF. Influence of hydrotherapy and antiseptic agents on burn wound bacteria contamination. J Burn Care Rehab 1985;6:230–2.
  872. Gruber RP, Laub DR, Vistnes LM. The effect of hydrotherapy on the clinical course and pH of experimental cutaneous chemical burns. Plastic Reconstruct Surg 1975;55:200–4.
  873. Mansell RE, Borchardt KA. Disinfecting hydrotherapy equipment. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1974;55:318– 20.
  874. Hall J, Skevington SM, Maddison PH, Chapman K. A randomized and controlled trial of hydrotherapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care Res 1996;9:206–15.
  875. Gross A, Cutright DE, Bhaskar SN. Effectiveness of pulsating water jet lavage in treatment of contaminated crush injuries. Am J Surgery 1972;124:373–7.
  876. Rodeheaver GT, Paltry D, Thacker JG, Edgerton MT, Edlich RF. Wound cleansing by high pressure irrigation. Surg Gynecol Obstetr 1975;141:357–62.
  877. Saxe A, Goldestein E, Dixon S, Ostrup R. Pulsatile lavage in the management of postoperative wound infections. Am Surgeon 1980;46:391–7.
  878. Weller K. In search of efficacy and efficiency: an alternative to conventional wound cleansing modalities. Ostomy/Wound Manage 1991;37:23–8.
  879. Solomon SL. Host factors in whirlpool-associated Pseudomonas aeruginosa skin disease. Infect Control 1985;6:402–6.
  880. Hicks CB, Chulay JD. Bacteremic Citrobacter freundii cellulitis associated with tub immersion in a patient with the nephrotic syndrome. Mil Med 1988;153:400–1.
  881. Mayhall CG, Lamb VA, Gayle WE, Haynes BW. Enterobacter cloacae septicemia in a burn center: epidemiology and control of an outbreak. J Infect Dis 1979;139:166–71.
  882. Marrie TJ, Gass RSR, Yates L. Legionella pneumophila in a physiotherapy pool. Eur J Clin Microbiol 1987;6:212–3.
  883. Havelaar AH, Berwald LG, Groothuis DG, Baas JG. Mycobacteria in semi-public swimming pools and whirlpools. Ztb Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg [B] 1985;180:505–14.
  884. Favero MS. Whirlpool spa-associated infections: are we really in hot water? Am J Public Health 1984;74:653–5.
  885. Ratnam S, Hogan K, March SB, Butler RW. Whirlpool-associated folliculitis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa: report of an outbreak and review. J Clin Microbiol 1986;23:655–9.
  886. Stone HH, Kolb LD. The evolution and spread of gentamicin-resistant Pseudomonas. J Trauma 1971;11:586–9.
  887. Richard P, LeFlock R, Chamoux C, Pannier M, Espaze E, Richet H. Pseudomonas aeruginosa outbreak in a burn unit: role of antimicrobials in the emergence of multiply resistant strains. J Infect Dis 1994;170:377– 83.
  888. Berrouane YF, McNutt L-A, Buschelman BJ, et al. Outbreak of severe Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections caused by a contaminated drain in a whirlpool bathtub. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1331–7.
  889. (250) Schmidt OW, Cooney MK, Foy HM. Adeno-associated virus in adenovirus type 3 conjunctivitis. Infect Immun 1975;11:1362–70.
  890. DeJonckheere JF. Hospital hydrotherapy pools treated with ultraviolet light: bad bacteriological quality and presence of thermophilic Naegleria. J Hyg (Lond) 1982;88:205–14.
  891. American Physical Therapy Association. Hydrotherapy/therapeutic pool infection control guidelines. Alexandria, VA: APTA, 1995;112.
  892. CDC. Disinfection of hydrotherapy pools and tanks. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1974. Publication No. HHS 00-2383.
  893. Price D, Ahearn DG. Incidence and persistence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in whirlpools. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26:1650–4.
  894. (252) White CG. Chemistry of chlorination. In: Handbook of chlorination and alternative disinfectants, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992;184–249.
  895. Mayhall CG. Burn patients. In: Pfeiffer J, ed. APIC Text of infection control and epidemiology. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc (APIC), 2000;32.1–32.8.
  896. Smith RF, Blasi D, Dayton SL, Chipps DD. Effects of sodium hypochlorite on the microbial flora of burns and normal skin. J Trauma 1974;14:938–44.
  897. Cardany CR, Rodeheaver GT, Horowitz JH, Kenney JG, Edlich RF. Influence of hydrotherapy and antiseptic agents on burn wound bacterial contamination. J Burn Care Rehabil 1985;6:230–2.
  898. Steve L, Goodhart P, Alexander J. Hydrotherapy burn treatment: use of chloramine-T against resistant microorganisms. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1979;60:301–3.
  899. Golland A. Basic hydrotherapy. Physiotherapy 1981;67:258–62.
  900. Edlich RF, Becker DG, Phung D, McClelland WA, Day SG. Water treatment of hydrotherapy exercise pools. J Burn Care Rehabil 1988;9:9510–5.
  901. Penny PT. Hydrotherapy pools of the future — the avoidance of health problems. J Hosp Infect 1991;18:535–42.
  902. CDC. Swimming pools: safety and disease control through proper design and operation. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1976. Publication No. HHS No. 88–8319.
  903. Linneman CC Jr. Nosocomial infections associated with physical therapy, including hydrotherapy. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;931–6.
  904. Aspinall ST, Graham R. Two sources of contamination of a hydrotherapy pool by environmental organisms. J Hosp Infect 1989;14:285–92.
  905. (251) McCandlish R, Renfrew M. Immersion in water during labor and birth: the need for evaluation. Birth 1993;20:79–85.
  906. Hawkins S. Water vs conventional births: Infection rates compared. Nursing Times 1995;91:38–40.
  907. Vochem M, Vogt M, Doring G. Sepsis in a newborn due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa from a contaminated tub bath. N Engl J Med 2001;345:378–9.
  908. Eriksson M, Ladfors L, Mattsson LA, Fall O. Warm tub bath during labor: a study of 1385 women with prelabor rupture of the membranes after 34 weeks of gestation. Acta Obstet Gynaecol Scand 1996;75:642– 4.
  909. Rush J, Burlock S, Lambert K, Loosley-Millman M, Hutchinson B, Enkin M. The effects of whirlpool baths in labor: a randomized, controlled trial. Birth 1996;23:136–3.
  910. Davis BJ. Whirlpool operation and the prevention of infection. Infect Control 1985;6:394–7.
  911. (253) Muscarella LF. Automatic flexible endoscope reprocessors. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2000;10:245–57.
  912. (254) Muscarella LF. Anticipated reliability of liquid chemical sterilants [letter]. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:155–6.
  913. (255) Muscarella LF. DejB vu… all over again? The importance of instrument drying [letter]. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:628–9.
  914. (256) Gubler JGH, Salfinger M, von Graevenitz A. Pseudoepidemic of nontuberculous mycobacteria due to a contaminated bronchoscope cleaning machine: report of an outbreak and review of the literature. Chest 1992;101:1245–9.
  915. (257) Fraser VJ, Jones M, Murray PR, Medoff G, Zhang Y, Wallace RJ Jr. Contamination of flexible fiberoptic bronchoscopes with Mycobacterium chelonae linked to an automated bronchoscope disinfection machine. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:853–5.
  916. Maloney S, Welbel S, Daves B, et al. Mycobacterium abscessus pseudoinfection traced to an automated endoscope washer: utility of epidemiologic and laboratory investigation. J Infect Dis 1994;169:1166–9.
  917. Merighi A, Contato E, Scagliarini R, et al. Quality improvement in gastrointestinal endoscopy: microbiologic surveillance of disinfection. Gastrointest Endosc 1996;43:457–62.
  918. (258) Muscarella LF. Application of environmental sampling to flexible endoscope reprocessing: the importance of monitoring the rinse water. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:285–9.
  919. Mitchell DH, Hicks LJ, Chiew R, Montanaro JC, Chen SC. Pseudoepidemic of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 6 associated with contaminated bronchoscopes. J Hosp Infect 1997;37:19–23.
  920. Ido K, Ishino Y, Ota Y, et al. Deficiencies of automatic endoscopic reprocessors: a method to achieve high- grade disinfection of endoscopes. Gastrointest Endosc 1996;44:583–6.
  921. (260) Allen JJ, Allen MO, Olsen MM, et al. Pseudomonas infection of the biliary system resulting from the use of a contaminated endoscope. Gastroenterology 1987;92:759–63.
  922. Agerton T, Valway S, Gore B, et al. Transmission of a highly drug-resistant strain (Strain W-1) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: community outbreak and nosocomial transmission via a contaminated bronchoscope. JAMA 1997;278:1073–7.
  923. (261) Michele TM, Cronin WA, Graham NMH, et al. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by a fiberoptic bronchoscope: identification by DNA fingerprinting. JAMA 1997;278:1093–5.
  924. Bronowicki J-P, Venard V, Botte C, et al. Patient-to-patient transmission of hepatitis C virus during colonoscopy. N Engl J Med 1997;337:237–40.
  925. (262) U.S. Food and Drug Administration, CDC. FDA and CDC Public health advisory: infection from endoscopes inadequately reprocessed by an automated endoscope reprocessing system. September 10, 1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.fda.gov/cdrh/safety.html.]
  926. Rey JF. Endoscopic disinfection. A worldwide problem. J Clin Gastroenterol 1999;28:291–7.
  927. Wang HC, Liaw YS, Yang PC, Kuo SH, Luh KT. A pseudoepidemic of Mycobacterium chelonae infection caused by contamination of a fibreoptic bronchoscope suction channel. Eur Respir J 1995;8:1259–62.
  928. (263) Alvarado CJ, Reichelderfer M. APIC guideline for infection prevention and control in flexible endoscopy. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:138–55.
  929. Van Klingeren B, Pullen W. Glutaraldehyde resistant mycobacteria from endoscope washers. J Hosp Infect 1993;25:147–9.
  930. Flournoy DJ, Petrone RL, Voth DW. A pseudo-outbreak of Methylobacterium mesophilica isolated from patients undergoing bronchoscopy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1992;11:240–3.
  931. Reeves DS, Brown NM. Mycobacterial contamination of fibreoptic bronchoscopes. J Hosp Infect 1995;30(suppl):S531–S536.
  932. Kelstrup J, Funder-Nielsen T, Theilade J. Microbial aggregate contamination of water lines in dental equipment and its control. Acta Path Scand 1977;85:177–83.
  933. Challacombe SJ, Fernandes LL. Detecting Legionella pneumophila in water systems: a comparison of various dental units. J Am Dent Assoc 1995;126:603–8.
  934. Singh R, Stine OC, Smith DL, Spitznagel JK Jr, Labib ME, Williams HN. Microbial diversity of biofilms in dental unit water systems. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003;69:3412–20.
  935. (264) CDC. Statement from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) regarding biofilm and dental unit water quality. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, 1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/oh/ic-fs-biofilm.htm.]
  936. (265) CDC. Recommended infection control practices for dentistry, 1993. MMWR 1993;42(No. RR-8):1– 12.
  937. (268) Bagga BS, Murphy RA, Anderson AW, Punwani I. Contamination of dental unit cooling water with oral microorganisms and its prevention. J AM Dent Assoc 1984;109:712–6.
  938. Scheid RC, Rosen S, Beck FM. Reduction of CFUs in high-speed handpiece water lines over time. Clin Prev Dent 1990;12:9–12.
  939. Williams JF. Johnston AM, Johnson B, Huntington MK, Mackenzie CD. Microbial contamination of dental unit waterlines: prevalence, intensity, and microbiological characteristics. J Am Dent Assoc 1993;124:59– 65.
  940. Santiago JI, Huntington MK, Johnston AM, Quinn RS, Williams JF. Microbial contamination of dental unit waterlines: short- and long-term effects of flushing. Gen Dent 1994;42:528–35.
  941. Williams HN, Johnson A, Kelley JI, et al. Bacterial contamination of the water supply in newly installed dental units. Quintessence Int 1995;26:331–7.
  942. CDC. Guideline for infection control in dental health-care settings. MMWR 2003;52:in press.
  943. (266) Office of Safety and Asepsis Procedures Research Foundation. Position paper on dental unit waterlines. Annapolis, MD: OSAPRF, 2000. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.osap.org/issues/pages/water/duwl.htm.]
  944. (267) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National primary drinking water regulations, 40 CFR 1, Part 141, Subpart G;1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html.]
  945. (344) Eaton AD, Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, eds. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, 1998;9–1 through 9–41.
  946. (269) Shearer BG. Biofilm and the dental office. J Am Dent Assoc 1996;127:181–9.
  947. Maki DG, Alvarado CJ, Hassemer CA, Zilz MA. Relation of the inanimate hospital environment to endemic nosocomial infection. N Engl J Med 1982;307:1562–6.
  948. Danforth D, Nicolle LE, Hume K, Alfieri N, Sims H. Nosocomial infections on nursing units with floors cleaned with a disinfectant compared with detergent. J Hosp Infect 1987;10:229–35.
  949. Spaulding EH. Role of chemical disinfection in the prevention of nosocomial infections. In: Brachman PS, Eickhoff TC, eds. Proceedings of the International Conference on Nosocomial Infections, 1970. Chicago, IL: American Hospital Association, 1971;247–54.
  950. Spaulding EH. Chemical disinfection and antisepsis in the hospital. J Hosp Res 1972;9:5–31.
  951. (273) Favero MS, Bond WW. Chemical disinfection of medical and surgical materials. In: Block SS, ed. Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001;881–917.
  952. (274) Rutala WA. APIC guideline for selection and use of disinfectants. Am J Infect Control 1996;24:313–42.
  953. Agolini G, Russo A, Clementi M. Effect of phenolic and chlorine disinfectants on hepatitis on hepatitis C virus binding and infectivity. Am J Infect Control 1999;27:236–9.
  954. (279) Favero MS, Bond WW. Sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis in the hospital. In: Balows A, Hausler WJ Jr, Herrmann KL, Isenberg HD, Shadomy HJ, eds. Manual of clinical microbiology, 5th ed. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology, 1991;183–200.
  955. Nyström B. Bioburden of non-disposable surgical instruments and operating room textiles. In: Gaughran ERL, Morrissey RF, eds. Sterilization of medical products, Vol II. Montreal, Québec: Multiscience Publications Ltd., 1981;156–63.
  956. Nyström B. Disinfection of surgical instruments. J Hosp Infect 1981;2:3636–8.
  957. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. FDA labeling requirements for disinfection of endoscopes: a counterpoint. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:231–5.
  958. Parker HH IV, Johnson RD. Effectiveness of ethylene oxide for sterilization of dental handpieces. J Dent 1995;1:1–3.
  959. Alfa MJ, DeGagne P, Olson N, Puchalski T. Comparison of ion plasma, vaporized hydrogen peroxide, and 100% ethylene oxide sterilizers to the 12/88 ethylene oxide gas sterilizer. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:92–100.
  960. Rutala WA, Gergen MF, Jones JF, Weber DJ. Levels of microbial contamination on surgical instruments. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:143–5.
  961. (275) Stingeni L, Lapomarda V, Lisi P. Occupational hand dermatitis in hospital environments. Contact Dermatitis 1995;33:172–6.
  962. (276) Ashdown BC, Stricof DD, May ML, Sherman SJ, Carmody RF. Hydrogen peroxide poisoning causing brain infarction: neuroimaging findings. AM J Roentgenol 1998;170:1653–5.
  963. (277) Busch A, Werner E. [Animal tolerance to peracetic acid. 1. Experimental results rollowing the application of peracetic acid solutions on the skin of pigs]. Monatshefte für Veterinaermedizin 1974;29:494–8. (German)
  964. (278) U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Medical devices: adequate directions for use. 21 CFR Part 801.5, 807.87.e.
  965. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Memorandum of understanding between the Food and Drug Administration, Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, and the Environmental Protection Agency: Notice regarding matters of mutual responsibility — regulation of liquid chemical germicides intended for use on medical devices, 1993. Available from FDA, Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH), Office of Health and Industry Programs, Division of Small Manufacturers Assistance, Rockville MD 20850, or EPA, Registration Division, Antimicrobial Program Branch, 401 M St., SW, Washington DC 20460.
  966. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Interim measures for the registration of antimicrobial products/liquid chemical germicides with medical device use claims under the memorandum of understanding between EPA and FDA, 1994. CDRH Facts on Demand, Shelf #851, p. 14;June 30, 1994. Available from FDA, CDRH, Office of Health and Industry Programs, Division of Small Manufacturers Assistance, Rockville MD 20850.
  967. (293) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne Pathogens: final rule (29 CFR 1910.1030). Federal Register 1991;56:64004–182.
  968. Collins BJ. The hospital environment: how clean should a hospital be? J Hosp Infect 1988;11 (Suppl A): 53–6.
  969. Van den Berg RWA, Claahsen HL, Niessen M, Muytjens HL, Liem K, Voss A. Enterobacter cloacae outbreak in the NICU related to disinfected thermometers. J Hosp Infect 2000;45:29–34.
  970. Spaulding EH. Alcohol as a surgical disinfectant. AORN J 1964;2:67–71.
  971. (282) Ayliffe GAJ, Collins BJ, Lowbury EJL, Babb JR, Lilly HA. Ward floors and other surfaces as reservoirs of hospital infection. J Hyg (Camb) 1967;65:515–37.
  972. (283) Dancer SJ. Mopping up hospital infection. J Hosp Infect 1999;43:85–100.
  973. Gable TS. Bactericidal effectiveness of floor cleaning methods in a hospital environment. Hospitals JAHA 1966;40:107–11.
  974. (271) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. 7 USC 6 § 136 et seq.;1972. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/7/ch6schII.html.]
  975. Petersen NJ, Marshall JH, Collins DE. Why wash walls in hospital isolation rooms? Health Lab Sci 1973;10:23–7.
  976. (285) Mallison GF. Decontamination, disinfection, and sterilization. Nurs Clin North Am 1980;15:757– 67.
  977. Ayliffe GAJ, Collins BJ, Lowbury EJL. Cleaning and disinfection of hospital floors. Br Med J 1966;2:442–5.
  978. Vesley D, Pryor AK, Walter WG, Shaffer JG. A cooperative microbiological evaluation of floor-cleaning procedures in hospital patient rooms. Health Lab Sci 1970;7:256–64.
  979. Daschner J, Rabbenstein G, Langmaack H. [Fla chendekontamination zur verhutung und bekampfund von drakenhaus infectionen.] Deutsche Medizische Wochenschrift 1980;10:325–9. (German)
  980. Dharan S, Mourouga P, Copin P, Bessmer G, Tschanz B, Pittet D. Routine disinfection of patients’ environmental surfaces: Myth or reality? J Hosp Infect 1999;42:113–7.
  981. Palmer PH, Yeoman DM. A study to assess the value of disinfectants when washing ward floors. Med J Australia 1972;2:1237–9.
  982. (284) Schmidt EA, Coleman DL, Mallison GF. Improved system for floor cleaning in health care facilities. Appl Environ Microbiol 1984;47:942–6.
  983. (272) Mallison GF. Hospital disinfectants for housekeeping: floors and tables. Infect Control 1984;5:537.
  984. Vesley D, Klapes NA, Benzow K, Le CT. Microbiological evaluation of wet and dry floor sanitization systems in hospital patient rooms. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987;53:1042–5.
  985. Werry C, Lawrence JM, Sanderson PJ. Contamination of detergent cleaning solutions during hospital cleaning. J Hosp Infect 1988;11:44–9.
  986. (280) Chou T. Environmental services. In: APIC Text of Infection Control and Epidemiology. Pfeiffer J, ed. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc.;2000;73.1– 73.8.
  987. (281) Rutala WA, Weber D. General information on cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization. In: Pfeiffer J, ed. APIC Text of infection control and epidemiology. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc (APIC);2000:55.1–55.6.
  988. (286) Walter CW, Kundsin RB. The floor as a reservoir of hospital infections. Surg Gynec Obstet 1960;111:412–22.
  989. (287) Scott E, Bloomfield SF. The survival and transfer of microbial contamination via cloths, hands and utensils. J Appl Bacteriol 1990;68:271–8.
  990. (288) Scott E, Bloomfield SF. Investigations of the effectiveness of detergent washing, drying and chemical disinfection on contamination of cleaning cloths. J Appl Bacteriol 1990;68:279–83.
  991. Givan KF, Black BL, Williams PF. Multiplication of Pseudomonas species in phenolic germicidal detergent solution. Can J Pub Health 1971;62:72.
  992. Thomas MEM, Piper E, Maurer IM. Contamination of an operating theater by gram-negative bacteria: examination of water supplies, cleaning methods, and wound infections. J Hyg (Camb) 1972;70:63–73.
  993. Medcraft JW, Hawkins JM, Fletcher BN, Dadswell JV. Potential hazard from spray cleaning of floors in hospital wards. J Hosp Infect 1987;9:151–7.
  994. (289) Brown DG, Schaltzle K, Gable T. The hospital vacuum cleaner: mechanism for redistributing microbial contaminants. J Environ Health 1980;42:192–6.
  995. (290) Wysowski DK, Flynt JW, Goldfield M, et al. Epidemic hyperbilirubinemia and use of a phenolic disinfectant detergent. Pediatrics 1978;61:165–70.
  996. (291) Doan HM, Keith L, Shennan AT. Phenol and neonatal jaundice. Pediatrics 1979;64:324–5.
  997. (292) American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Infection control. In: Guidelines for perinatal care, 4th ed. Evanston, IL: AAP, ACOG, 1997;269–74.
  998. (294) Spire B, Montagnier L, Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC. Inactivation of lymphadenopathy associated virus by chemical disinfectants. Lancet 1984;2:899–901.
  999. (295) Martin LS, McDougal JS, Loskoski SL. Disinfection and inactivation of the human T lymphotrophic virus type-III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus. J Infect Dis 1985;152:400–3.
  1000. (296) Hanson PJ, Gor D, Jeffries DJ, Collins JV. Chemical inactivation of HIV on surfaces. Br Med J 1989;298:862–4.
  1001. (297) Bloomfield SF, Smith-Burchnell CA, Dalgleish AG. Evaluation of hypochlorite-releasing disinfectants against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). J Hosp Infect 1990;15:273–8.
  1002. (298) Druce JD, Jardine D, Locarnini SA, Birch CJ. Susceptibility of HIV to inactivation by disinfectants and ultraviolet light. J Hosp Infect 1995;30:167–80.
  1003. (299) Van Bueren J, Simpson RA, Salman H, Farrelly HD, Cookson BD. Inactivation of HIV-1 by chemical disinfectants: sodium hypochlorite. Epidemiol Infect 1995;115:567–79
  1004. (300) Prince DL, Prince HN, Thraehart O, et al. Methodological approaches to disinfection of human hepatitis viruses. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:3296–304.
  1005. Tabor E, Gerety RJ. A survey of formalin inactivation of hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, and a non- A, non-B hepatitis agent. In: Second International Max von Pettenkofer Symposium on Viral Hepatitis. Munich, Germany: October 1982.
  1006. Thraenhart O, Kuwert EK, Scheiermann N, et al. Comparison of the morphological alteration and disintegration test (MADT) and the chimpanzee infectivity test for determination of hepatitis B virucidal activity of chemical disinfectants. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hyg (B) 1982;176:472–84.
  1007. (303) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. EPA-registered disinfectants for HIV/HBV. [Memorandum 2/28/97]. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.osha­ slc.gov/OshDoc/Interp_data/I19970228C.html.]
  1008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Lists A, B, C, D, E, and F: EPA registered disinfectants, sanitizers and sterilants. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.epa.gov/oppad001/chemregindex.htm.]
  1009. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Protocols for testing the efficacy of disinfectants against hepatitis B. Federal Register 2000;65:51828–30.
  1010. (301) CDC. Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings. MMWR 1987;36 (No.2S):1S–18S.
  1011. (304) Weber DJ, Barbee SL, Sobsey MD, Rutala WA. The effect of blood on the antiviral activity of sodium hypochlorite, a phenolic, and a quaternary ammonium compound. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:821–7.
  1012. (302) Sattar SA, Springthorpe VS. Survival and disinfectant inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: a critical review. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:430–47.
  1013. (400) CDC, National Institutes of Health. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories, 4th ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999.
  1014. Lee R. The advantages of carpets in mental hospitals. Ment Hosp 1965;16:324–5
  1015. Simmons D, Reizenstein J, Grant M. Considering carpets in hospital use. Dimensions 1982;June:18–21.
  1016. Willmott M. The effect of a vinyl floor surface and a carpeted floor surface upon walking in elderly hospital in-patients. Age Ageing 1986;15:119–20.
  1017. Shaffer J, Key I. The microbiological effects of carpeting on the hospital environment. Hospitals JAHA 1966;40:126–39.
  1018. Walter W, Stober A. Quantitative and qualitative microbial studies of hospital carpets. J Environ Health 1967;30:293–300.
  1019. Anderson RL. Biological evaluation of carpeting. Appl Microbiol 1969;18:180–7.
  1020. Lanese RR, Keller MD, Macpherson CR, Covey RC. A study of microflora on tiled and carpeted surfaces in a hospital nursery. Am J Public Health 1973;63:174–8.
  1021. Bonde GJ. Bacterial flora of synthetic carpets in hospitals. Health Lab Sci 1973;10:308–18.
  1022. Rylander R, Myrback K, Verner-Carlson B, Ohrstrom M. Bacteriological investigation of wall-to-wall carpeting. Am J Public Health 1974;64:163–8.
  1023. (305) Suzuki A, Namba Y, Matsuura M, Horisawa A. Bacterial contamination of floors and other surfaces in operating rooms: a five-year survey. J Hyg (Camb) 1984;93:559–66.
  1024. Skoutelis AT, Westenfelder GO, Beckerdite M, Phair JP. Hospital carpeting and epidemiology of Clostridium difficile. Am J Infect Control 1993;22:212–7
  1025. Anderson RL, Mackel DC, Stoler BS, Mallison GF. Carpeting in hospitals: an epidemiological evaluation. J Clin Microbiol 1982;15:408–15.
  1026. (160) Vesper S, Dearborn DG, Yike I, et al. Evaluation of Stachybotrys chartarum in the house of an infant with pulmonary hemorrhage: quantitative assessment before, during, and after remediation. J Urban Health 2000;77:68–85.
  1027. Bakker PGH, Faoagali JL. The effect of carpet on the number of microbes in the hospital environment. N Zeal Med J 1977;85:88–92.
  1028. (306) Richet H, McNeil M, Pewters W, et al. Aspergillus flavus in a bone marrow transplant unit (BMTU): Pseudofungemia traced to hallway carpeting [abstract]. In: Abstracts of the 89th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology, 1989.
  1029. CDC. Respiratory illness associated with carpet cleaning at a hospital clinic — Virginia. MMWR 1983;32:378,383–4.
  1030. Maley MP. Bacterial threats to new hospitals. Lancet 1997;350:223–4.
  1031. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Toxic Substances. Efficacy data requirements. Supplemental recommendations DIS/TSS-2;1/25/79.
  1032. (307) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Standards Interpretation and Compliance Letters;6/10/94: Decontamination of a plush carpet surface after a spill. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.osha-slc.gov/OshDoc/Interp_data/I19940610.html.]
  1033. Richards K. New York City: special suites — Memorial Sloan Kettering. Interiors 1998;157:56–9.
  1034. Noskin BA, Bednarz P, Suriano T, Reiner S, Peterson LR. Persistent contamination of fabric-covered furniture by vancomycin-resistant enterococci: implications for upholstery selection in hospitals. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:311–3.
  1035. Sanderson PJ, Alshafi KM. Environmental contamination by organisms causing urinary tract infection. J Hosp Infect 1995;29: 301–3.
  1036. Babe KS Jr, Arlian LG, Confer PD, Kim R. House dust mite (Dermatophagoides farinae and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus) prevalence in the rooms and hallways of a tertiary care hospital. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1995;95:801–5
  1037. Custovic A, Fletcher A, Pickering CAC, et al. Domestic allergens in public places III: house dust mite, cat, dog, and cockroach allergens in British hospitals. Clin Exper Allergy 1998;28:53–9.
  1038. Ansorg R, Thomssen R, Stubbe P. Erwinia species causing fatal septicemia in a newborn. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 1974;159:161–70.
  1039. Trust TJ, Bartlett KH. Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other bacterial species from ornamental aquarium plants. Appl Environ Microbiol 1976;31:992–4.
  1040. (310) Bartzokas CA, Holley MP, Sharp CA. Bacteria in flower vase water: incidence and significance in general ward practice. Br J Surg 1975;62:295–7.
  1041. Watson AG, Koons CE. Pseudomonas on the chrysanthemums. Lancet 1973;2:91.
  1042. (311) Siegman-Igra Y, Shalem A, Berger SA, Livio S, Michaeli D. Should potted plants be removed from hospital wards? J Hosp Infect 1986;7:82–5.
  1043. Rosenzweig AL. Contaminated flower vases. Lancet 1973;2:568–9.
  1044. Johansen KS, Laursen H, Wilhjelm BJ. Flower vases as reservoirs of pathogens. Lancet 1974;1:359.
  1045. Rogues AM, Quesnel C, Revel P, Saric J, Gachie JP. Potted plants as a potential reservoir of Fusarium species. J Hosp Infect 1997;35:163–4.
  1046. (312) Lass-Flörl C, Rath P, Niederwieser D, et al. Aspergillus terreus infections in haematological malignancies: molecular epidemiology suggests association with in-hospital plants. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:31–5.
  1047. Levine OS, Levine MM. Houseflies (Musca domestica) as mechanical vectors of shigellosis. Rev Infect Dis 1991;13:688–96.
  1048. Šrámová H, Daniel M, Absolonová V, Dědičová D, Jedličková Z, Lhotová H, Petráš P, Subertová V. Epidemiological role of arthropods detectable in health facilities. J Hosp Infect 1992;20:281–92.
  1049. Tan SW, Yap KL, Lee HL. Mechanical transport of rotavirus by the legs and wings of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae). J Med Entomol 1997;34:527–31.
  1050. (313) Burgess NR. Hospital design and cockroach control. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1984;78:293–4.
  1051. Ash N, Greenberg B. Vector potential for the German cockroach (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) in dissemination of Salmonella enteritidis serotype typhimurium. J Med Entomol 1980;17:417–23.
  1052. Fotedar R, Banerjee U. Nosocomial fungal infections — study of the possible role of cockroaches (Blattella germanica) as vectors. Acta Trop 1992;50:339–43.
  1053. Rosef O, Kapperud G. House flies (Musca domestica) as possible vectors of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;45:381–3.
  1054. Forsey T, Darougar S. Transmission of chlamydiae by the housefly. Br J Ophthalmol 1981;65:147–50.
  1055. Grübel P, Hoffman JS, Chong FK, Burstein NA, Mepani C, Cave DR. Vector potential of houseflies (Musca domestica) for Helicobacter pylori. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:1300–3.
  1056. Oothuman P, Jeffery J, Aziz, AHA, Bakar EA, Jegathesan M. Bacterial pathogens isolated from cockroaches trapped from pediatric wards in peninsular Malaysia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1989;83:133–5.
  1057. Beatson SH. Pharaoh’s ants as pathogen vectors in hospitals. Lancet 1972;1:425–7.
  1058. LeGuyader A, Rivault C, Chaperon J. Microbial organisms carried by brown-banded cockroaches in relation to their spatial distribution in a hospital. Epidemiol Infect 1989;102:485–92.
  1059. Fotedar R, Banerjee U, Shriniwas, Verma A. Cockroaches (Blattella germanica) as carriers of microorganisms of medical importance in hospitals. Epidemiol Infect 1991;107:181–7.
  1060. Fotedar R, Banerjee U, Singh S, Shriniwas, Verma AK. The housefly (Musca domestica) as a carrier of pathogenic microorganisms in a hospital environment. J Hosp Infect 1992;20:209–15.
  1061. Fotedar R, Shriniwas, Banerjee U, Samantray JC, Nayar E, Verma A. Nosocomial infections: cockroaches as possible vectors of drug-resistant Klebsiella. J Hosp Infect 1991;18:155–9.
  1062. Devi SJN, Murray CJ. Cockroaches (Blatta and Periplaneta species) as reservoirs of drug-resistant salmonellas. Epidemiol Infect 1991;107:357–64.
  1063. Cotton MF, Wasserman E, Pieper CH, et al. Invasive disease due to extended spectrum beta-lactamase­ producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in a neonatal unit: the possible role of cockroaches. J Hosp Infect 2000;44:13–7.
  1064. Baker LF. Pests in hospitals. J Hosp Infect 1981;2:5–9.
  1065. (316) Allen BW. Excretion of viable tubercle bacilli by Blatta orientalis (the oriental cockroach) following ingestion of heat-fixed sputum smears: a laboratory investigation. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1987;81:98–9.
  1066. (317) Laszlo A. Technical guide: sputum examination for tuberculosis by direct microscopy in low income countries, 5th  ed. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, 2000. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.iuatld.org/html/body_guides.htm.]
  1067. Cohen D, Green M, Block C, et al. Reduction of transmission of shigellosis by control of houseflies (Musca domestica). Lancet 1991;337:993–7.
  1068. Daniel M, Šrámová H, Zálabská E. Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) causing hospital-acquired myiasis of a traumatic wound. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:149–52.
  1069. Jacobson JA, Kolts RL, Conti M, Burke JP. Hospital-acquired myiasis. Infect Control 1980;1:319–20.
  1070. Mielke U. Nosocomial myiasis. J Hosp Infect 1997;37:1–5.
  1071. Sherman RA. Wound myiasis in urban and suburban United States. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2004– 14.
  1072. (314) Lukin LG. Human cutaneous myiasis in Brisbane: a prospective study. Med J Aust 1989;150:237–40.
  1073. Watkins M, Wyatt T. A ticklish problem: pest infestation in hospitals. Prof Nurse 1989;4:389–92.
  1074. Schoninger S. Pest control and extermination in health care facilities. Prof Sanit Manage 1978;9:24–7.
  1075. (315) Bruesch J. Institutional pest management: current trends. Exec Housekeep Today 1994;15:6–12.
  1076. Tenover FC. VRSA, VISA, GISA: the dilemma behind the name game. Clin Microbiol Newsletter 2000;22:49–53.
  1077. CDC. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System (NNIS): Semiannual report. December 1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/SURVEILL/NNIS.htm.]
  1078. Hartstein AI, Mulligan ME. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;347– 64.
  1079. Walsh TJ, Vlahov D, Hansen SL, et al. Prospective microbiologic surveillance in control of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control 1987;8:7–14.
  1080. Walsh TJ, Auger F, Tatem BA, Hansen SL, Standford HJ. Novobiocin and rifampin in combination against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an in vitro comparison with vancomycin plus rifampin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986;17:75–82.
  1081. McNeil MM, Solomon SL. The epidemiology of MRSA. Antimicrobiol Newsl 1985;2:49–56.
  1082. Oie S, Kamiya A. Survival of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) on naturally contaminated dry mops. J Hosp Infect 1996;34:145–9.
  1083. Arnow PM, Allyn PA, Nichols EM, Hill DL, Pezzlo M, Bartlett RH. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a burn unit: role of nurse staffing. J Trauma 1982;22:954–9.
  1084. (329) Karanfil LV, Murphy M, Josephson A, et al. A cluster of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:195–200.
  1085. Handwerger S, Raucher B, Altarac D, et al. Nosocomial outbreak due to Enterococcus faecium highly resistant to vancomycin, penicillin, and gentamicin. Clin Infect Dis 1993;16:750–5.
  1086. Boyle JF, Soumakis SA, Rendo A, et al. Epidemiologic analysis and genotypic characterization of a nosocomial outbreak of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:1280–5.
  1087. (330) Boyce JM, Opal SM, Chow JW, et al. Outbreak of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium with transferable vanB class vancomycin resistance. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:1148–53.
  1088. (331) Rhinehart E, Smith NE, Wennerstein C, et al. Rapid dissemination of beta-lactamase-producing, aminoglycoside-resistant Enterococcus faecalis among patients and staff on an infant-toddler surgical ward. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1814–8.
  1089. Crossley K, Landesman B, Zaske D. An outbreak of infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin and aminoglycosides. II. epidemiologic studies. J Infect Dis 1979;139:280–7.
  1090. Peacock JE Jr, Marsik FJ, Wenzel RP. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: introduction and spread within a hospital. Ann Intern Med 1980;93:526–32.
  1091. Walsh TJ, Hansen SL, Tatem BA, Auger F, Standiford HJ. Activity of novobiocin against methicillin­ resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1985;15:435–40.
  1092. (332) Livornese LL Jr, Sias S, Samel C, et al. Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium transmitted by electronic thermometers. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:112–6.
  1093. Gould FK, Freeman R. Nosocomial infection with microsphere beds. Lancet 1993;342:241–2.
  1094. Morris JG, Shay DK, Hebden JN, et al. Enterococci resistant to multiple antimicrobial agents, including vancomycin: establishment of endemicity in a university medical center. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:250– 9.
  1095. Edmond MB, Ober JS, Weinbaum DL, et al. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia: risk factors for infection. Clin Infect Dis 1995;20:1126–33.
  1096. (333) Zervos MJ, Kauffman CA, Therasse PM, Bergman AG, Mikesell TS, Schaberg DR. Nosocomial infection by gentamicin-resistant Streptococcus faecalis: an epidemiologic study. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:687–91.
  1097. Zervos MJ, Dembinski S, Mikesell T, Schaberg DR. High-level resistance to gentamicin in Streptococcus faecalis: risk factors and evidence for exogenous acquisition of infection. J Infect Dis 1986;153: 1075–83.
  1098. Bonilla HF, Zervos MA, Lyons MJ, et al. Colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium: comparison of a long-term-care unit with an acute-care hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:333–9.
  1099. Bonilla HF, Zervos MJ, Kauffman CA. Long-term survival of vancomycin-resistant Entercoccus faecium on a contaminated surface. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996;17:770–1.
  1100. Boyce JM, Bermel LA, Zervos MJ, et al. Controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:634–7.
  1101. Boyce JM, Potter-Bynoe G, Chenevert C, King T. Environmental contamination due to methicillin­ resistant Staphylococcus aureus: possible infection control implications. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:622–7.
  1102. (328) Layton MC, Perez M, Heald P, Patterson JE. An outbreak of mupirocin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on a dermatology ward associated with an environmental reservoir. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14:369–75.
  1103. Collins SM, Hacek DM, Degen LA, Wright MP, Noskin GA, Peterson LR. Contamination of the clinical microbiology laboratory with vancomycin-resistant enterococci and multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae: implications for hospital and laboratory workers. J Clin Microbiol 2001;39:3772–4.
  1104. Bonten MJM, Hayden MK, Nathan C, et al. Epidemiology of colonisation of patients and environment with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Lancet 1996;348:1615–9.
  1105. Wendt C, Wiesenthal B, Dietz E, Rüden H. Survival of vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin­ susceptible enterococci on dry surfaces. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36:3734–46.
  1106. (323) Bradley CR, Fraise AP. Heat and chemical resistance of enterococci. J Hosp Infect 1996;34:191– 6.
  1107. (324) Anderson RL, Carr JH, Bond WW, Favero MS. Susceptibility of vancomycin-resistant enterococci to environmental disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:195–9.
  1108. (325) Saurina G, Landman D, Quale JM. Activity of disinfectants against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:345–7.
  1109. (326) Rutala WA, Stiegel MM, Sarubbi FA, Weber DJ. Susceptibility of antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant hospital bacteria to disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:417–21.
  1110. 1110. (327) Sehulster LM, Anderson RL. Susceptibility of glycopeptide-intermediate resistant Staphylococcus aureus (GISA) to surface disinfectants, hand washing chemicals, and a skin antiseptic [abstract Y-3]. In: Abstracts of the 98th General Meeting, American Society for Microbiology. 1998.
  1111. Armstrong-Evans M, Litt M, McArthur MA, et al. Control of transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in a long-term-care facility. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999;20:312–17.
  1112. Global Consensus Conference: Final Recommendations. Global Consensus Conference on Infection Control Issues Related to Antimicrobial Resistance. Am J Infect Control 1999;27:503–13.
  1113. Freeman R, Kearns AM, Lightfoot NF. Heat resistance of nosocomial enterococci. Lancet 1994;345:64– 5.
  1114. CDC. Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin — United States. MMWR 2002;51:565–7. 
  1115. CDC. Vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus — Pennsylvania, 2002. MMWR 2002;51:902.
  1116. (320) Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Role of environmental contamination in the transmission of vancomycin­resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;18:306–9.
  1117. (321) Lai KK, Kelley AL, Melvin ZS, Belliveau PP, Fontecchio SA. Failure to eradicate vacomycin­ resistant enterococci in a university hospital and the cost of barrier precautions. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:647–2.
  1118. (322) Byers KE, Durbin LJ, Simonton BM, Anglim AM, Adal KA, Farr BM. Disinfection of hospital rooms contaminated with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19:261–4.
  1119. Siegel DL, Edelstein PH, Nachamkin I. Inappropriate testing for diarrheal diseases in the hospital. JAMA 1990;263:979–82.
  1120. Yannelli B, Gurevich I, Schoch PE, Cunha BA. Yield of stool cultures, ova and parasite tests, and Clostridium difficile determination in nosocomial diarrhea. Am J Infect Control 1988;16:246–9.
  1121. Gerding DN, Olson MM, Peterson LR, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis in adults: a prospective case-controlled epidemiologic study. Arch Intern Med 1986;146:95–100.
  1122. Svenungsson B, Burman LG, Jalakas-Pörnull K, Lagergren C, Struwe J, Ckerlund T. Epidemiology and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile strains from patients with diarrhea: low disease incidence and evidence of limited cross-infection in a Swedish teaching hospital. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:4031–7.
  1123. Barlett JG. Antibiotic-associated colitis. Dis Mon 1984;30:1–55.
  1124. Pierce PF Jr, Wilson R, Silva J Jr, et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis: an epidemiologic investigation of a cluster of cases. J Infect Dis 1982;145:269–74.
  1125. Aronsson B, Möllby, Nord C-E. Antimicrobial agents and Clostridium difficile in acute enteric disease: epidemiologic data from Sweden, 1980–1982. J Infect Dis 1985;151:476–81.
  1126. Thibault A, Miller MA, Gaese C. Risk factors for the development of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea during a hospital outbreak. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:345–8.
  1127. McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Stamm WE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile carriage and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a cohort of hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis 1990;162:678– 84.
  1128. Zadik PM, Moore AP. Antimicrobial associations of an outbreak of diarrhoea due to Clostridium difficile. J Hosp Infect 1998;39:189–93.
  1129. Johnson S, Homann SR, Bettin KM, et al. Treatment of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriers (fecal excretors) with vancomycin or metronidazole: a randomized, placebo controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:297–302.
  1130. 1 (319) Gerding DN, Johnson S, Peterson LR, Mulligan ME, Silva J Jr. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:459–77.
  1131. Titov L, Lebedkova N, Shabanov A, Tang YJ, Cohen SH, Silva J Jr. Isolation and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile strains from patients and the hospital environment in Belarus. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38:1200–2.
  1132. Mulligan ME, Rolfe RD, Finegold SM, George WL. Contamination of a hospital environment by Clostridium difficile. Curr Microbiol 1979;3:173–5.
  1133. Fekety R, Kim KH, Brown D, Batts DH, Cudmore M, Silva J Jr. Epidemiology of antibiotic-associated colitis: isolation of Clostridium difficile from the hospital environment. Am J Med 1981;70:906–8.
  1134. Malamou-Ladas H, Farrell SO, Nash JO, Tabaqchali S. Isolation of Clostridium difficile from patients and the evironment of hospital wards. J Clin Pathol 1983;6:88–92.
  1135. Kaatz GW, Gitlin SD, Schaberg DR, et al. Acquisition of Clostridium difficile from the hospital environment. Am J Epidemiol 1988;127:1289–94.
  1136. Cohen SH, Tang YJ, Muenzer J, Gumerlock PH, Silva J Jr. Isolation of various genotypes of Clostridium difficile from patients and the environment in an oncology ward. J Infect Dis 1997;889–93.
  1137. Savage AM. Nosocomial spread of Clostridium difficile. Infect Control 1983;4:31–3.
  1138. Brooks SE, Veal RO, Kramer M, Dore L, Schupf N, Adachi M. Reduction in the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in an acute care hospital and a skilled nursing facility following replacement of electronic thermometers with single-use disposables. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1992;13:98–103.
  1139. 1Johnson S, Gerding DN, Olson MM, et al. Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med 1990;88:137–40.
  1140. McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok RYY, Stamm WE. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. New Engl J Med 1989l;320:204–10.
  1141. Mayfield JL, Leet T, Miller J, Mundy LM. Environmental control to reduce transmission of Clostridium difficile. Clin Inf Dis 2000;31:995–1000.
  1142. Wilcox MH, Fawley WN, Wigglesworth N, Parnell P, Verity P, Freeman J. Comparison of the effect of detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2003;54:109–14.
  1143. (334) Worsley MA. Infection control and prevention of Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrobial Chemother 1998;41 (Suppl. C):59–66.
  1144. von Rheinbaben F, Schünemann S, Groß T, Wolff MH. Transmission of viruses via contact in a household setting: experiments using bacteriophage φX174 as a model virus. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:61– 6.
  1145. Hall CB, Douglas G Jr, Gelman JM. Possible transmission by fomites of respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis 1980;141:98–102.
  1146. Brady MT, Evans J, Cuartas J. Survival and disinfection of parainfluenza viruses on environmental surfaces. Am J Infect Control 1990;18:18–23.
  1147. Hendley JO, Wenzel RP, Gwaltney JM Jr. Transmission of rhinovirus colds by self-inoculation. N Engl J Med 1973;288:1361–4.
  1148. Butz AM, Fosarelli P, Dick J, Cusack T, Yolken R. Prevalence of rotavirus on high-risk fomites in day- care facilities. Pediatrics 1993;92:202–5.
  1149. Wilde J, Van R, Pickering LK, Eiden J, Yolken R. Detection of rotaviruses in the day care environment — detection by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. J Infect Dis 1992;166:507–11.
  1150. Chapin M, Yatabe J, Cherry JD. An outbreak of rotavirus gastroenteritis on a pediatric unit. Am J Infect Control 1983;11:88–91.
  1151. Appleton H, Higgins PG. Viruses and gastroenteritis in infants. Lancet 1975;i:1297.
  1152. Abad FX, Villena C, Guix S, Caballero S, Pintó RM, Bosch A. Potential role of fomites in the vehicular transmission of human astroviruses. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001;67:3904–7.
  1153. Chadwick PR, Beards G, Brown D, et al. Management of hospital outbreaks of gastro-enteritis due to small round structured viruses. Report of the Public Health Laboratory Service, Viral Gastroenteritis Working Group. J Hosp Infect 2000;45:1–10.
  1154. Spender QW, Lewis D, Price EH. Norwalk-like viruses: study of an outbreak. Arch Dis Child 1986;61:142–7.
  1155. Storr J, Rice S, Phillips AD, Price E, Walker Smith JA. Clinical associations of Norwalk-like virus in the stools of children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1986;5:576–80.
  1156. Russo PL, Spelman DW, Harrington GA, et al. Hospital outbreak of Norwalk-like virus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1997;17:1374–8.
  1157. Springthorpe VS, Grenier JL, Lloyd-Evans N, Sattar SA. Chemical disinfection of human rotaviruses: efficacy of commercially-available products in suspension tests. J Hyg (Camb) 1986;97:139–61.
  1158. (335) Lloyd-Evans N, Springthorpe VS, Sattar SA. Chemical disinfection of human rotavirus- contaminated inanimate surfaces. J Hyg (Camb) 1986;97:163–73.
  1159. CDC. Interim recommendations for cleaning and disinfection of the SARS patient environment. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/cleaningpatientenviro.htm.]
  1160. Brown P, Gajdusek DC. The human spongiform encephalopathies: Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1991;172:1–20.
  1161. Will RG. Epidemiology of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Br Med Bull 1993;49:960–70.
  1162. Holman RC, Khan AS, Belay ED, Schonberger LB. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in the United States, 1979–1994: using national mortality data to assess the possible occurrence of variant cases. Emerg Infect Dis 1996;2:333–7.
  1163. Will RG, Ironside JW, Zeidler M, et al. A new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in the U.K. Lancet 1996;347:921–5.
  1164. Lasmézas CI, Deslys JP, Demaimay R, et al. BSE transmission to macaques. Nature 1996;381:743–4.
  1165. Collinge J, Sidle KCL, Heads J, Ironside J, Hill AF. Molecular analysis of prion strain variation and the aetiology of “new variant” CJD. Nature 1996;383:685–90.
  1166. Bruce ME, Will RG, Ironside JW, et al. Transmission to mice indicates that “new variant” CJD is caused by the BSE agent. Nature 1997;389:498–501.
  1167. Prusiner SB. Biology and genetics of prion diseases. Ann Rev Microbiol 1994;48:655–86.
  1168. Prusiner SB. Human prion diseases. In: Zuckerman AJ, Banatvala JE, Pattison JR, eds. Principles and practice of clinical virology, 3rd ed. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1995;703–29.
  1169. Prusiner SB. Prions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:13363–83.
  1170. (337) Kimberlin RH, Walker CA, Millson GC, et al. Disinfection studies with two strains of mouse- passaged scrapie agent. Guidelines for Creutzfeldt-Jakob and related agents. J Neurol Sci 1983;59:349– 55.
  1171. Sklaviadis TK, Manuelidis L, Manuelidis EE. Physical properties of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent. J Virol 1989;63:1212–22.
  1172. Brown P, Gajdusek DC, Gibbs CJ Jr, Asher DM. Potential epidemic of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease from human growth hormone therapy. N Engl J Med 1985;12:728–33.
  1173. Brown P, Preece MA, Will RG. “Friendly fire” in medicine: hormones, homografts and Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease. Lancet 1992;340:24–7. Brown P, Preece MA, Will RG. “Friendly fire” in medicine: hormones, homografts and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Lancet 1992;340:24–7.
  1174. Frasier D, Foley TP Jr. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in recipients of pituitary hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1994;78:1277–9.
  1175. Centers for Disease Control. Epidemiologic notes and reports: rapidly progressive dementia in a patient who received a cadaveric dura mater graft. MMWR 1987;36:49–50, 55.
  1176. Centers for Disease Control. Epidemiologic notes and reports update: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a patient receiving cadaveric dura mater graft. MMWR 1987;36:324–5.
  1177. Centers for Disease Control. Epidemiologic notes and reports update: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a second patient who received a cadaveric dura mater graft. MMWR 1989;38:37–8, 43.
  1178. CDC. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in patients who received a cadaveric dura mater graft — Spain, 1985– 1992. MMWR 1993;42:560–3.
  1179. Martinez-Lage JF, Poza M, Sola J, et al. Accidental transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by dural cadaveric grafts. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994;57:1091–4.
  1180. CDC. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease associated with cadaveric dura mater grafts — Japan, January 1979– May 1997. MMWR 1997;46:1066–9.
  1181. Lang CLG, Heckmann JG, Neundörfer B. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease via dural and corneal transplants. J Neurol Sci 1998;160:128–39.
  1182. Nevin S, McMenemey WH, Behrman S, Jones DP. Subacute spongiform encephalopathy — a subacute form of encephalopathy attributable to vascular dysfunction (spongiform cerebral atrophy). Brain 1960;83:519–69.
  1183. Bernoulli C, Siegfried J, Baumgartner G, et al. Danger of accidental person-to-person transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease by surgery. Lancet 1977;1:478–9.
  1184. Will RG, Matthews WB. Evidence for case-to-case transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1982;45:235–8.
  1185. El Hachimi KH, Chaunu M-P, Cervenakova L, Brown P, Foncin J-F. Putative neurosurgical transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease with analysis of donor and recipient: agent strains. Comp Rendus Acad Sci Iii: Science de la vie 1997;320:319–28.
  1186. Brown P, Gibbs CJ, Amyx HL, et al. Chemical disinfection of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease virus. N Engl J Med 1982;306:1279–82.
  1187. Brown P, Rohwer RG, Gajdusek DC. Newer data on the inactivation of scrapie virus or Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease virus in brain tissue. J Infect Dis 1986;153:1145–8.
  1188. (338) Rosenberg RN, White CL, Brown P, Gajdusek DC, Volpe JJ, Dyck PJ. Precautions in handling tissues, fluids, and other contaminated materials from patients with documented or suspected Creutzfeldt- Jakob disease. Ann Neurol 1986;19:75–7.
  1189. Taylor DM. Resistance of the ME7 scrapie agent to peracetic acid. Vet Microbiol 1991;27:19–24.
  1190. Taguchi F, Tamai Y, Uchida K, et al. Proposal for a procedure for complete inactivation of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease agent. Arch Virol 1991;119:297–301.
  1191. (339) Taylor D. Inactivation of the unconventional agents of scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. J Hosp Infect 1991;18 (Suppl A):141–6.
  1192. Favero MS. Current issues in hospital hygiene and sterilization technology. J Infect Control (Asia Pacific Edition) 1998;1:8–10.
  1193. Ricketts MN, Cashman NR, Stratton EE, El Saadany S. Is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease transmitted in blood? Emerg Infect Dis 1997;3:155–63.
  1194. Will RG, Kimberlin RH. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and the risk from blood or blood products. Vox Sang 1998;75:178–80.
  1195. Evatt B, Austin H, Barnhart E, et al. Surveillance for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease among persons with hemophilia. Transfusion 1998;38:817–20.
  1196. Patry D, Curry B, Easton D, Mastrianni JA, Hogan DB. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) after blood product transfusion from a donor with CJD. Neurology 1998;50:1872–3.
  1197. (340) Budka H, Aguzzi A, Brown P, et al. Tissue handling in suspected Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and other human spongiform encephalopathies (prion diseases). Brain Pathol 1995;5:319–22.
  1198. (341) Ironside JW, Bell JE. The “high-risk” neuropathological autopsy in AIDS and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: principles and practice. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1996;22:388–93.
  1199. (336) Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease: recommendations for disinfection and sterilization. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:1348–56.
  1200. Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Exposure to Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease. Sentinel Alert, Issue 20; June 2001. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.jcaho.org/edu_pub/sealert/sea20.html.]
  1201. (342) World Health Organization. WHO Infection control guideline for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies: report of a WHO consultation. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 1999. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.who.int/emc-documents/tse/whocdscsraph2003c.html.]
  1202. Litsky BY. Results of bacteriological surveys highlight problem areas in hospitals. Hospital Management 1966;101:82–8.
  1203. Eickhoff TC. Microbiologic sampling. Hospitals 1970;44:86–7.
  1204. American Hospital Association Committee on Infections Within the Hospitals. Statement on microbiologic sampling in the hospital 1974;48:125–6.
  1205. Rafferty KM, Pancoast SJ. Brief report: bacteriological sampling of telephones and other hospital staff- hand contact objects. Infect Control 1984;5:533–5.
  1206. Haley RW, Shachtman RS. The emergence of infection control programs in U.S. hospitals: an assessment, 1976. Am J Epidemiol 1980;111:574–91.
  1207. Mallison GF, Haley RW. Microbiologic sampling of the inanimate environment in U.S. hospitals, 1976– 1977. Am J Med 1981;70:941–6.
  1208. Gröschel DHM. Air sampling in hospitals. Ann NY Acad Sci 1980;353:230–40.
  1209. (208, Appendix; 6) Barbaree JM, Gorman GW, Martin WT, Fields BS, Morrill WE. Protocol for sampling environmental sites for legionellae. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987;53:1454–8.
  1210. Eickhoff TC. Microbiologic sampling of the hospital environment. Health Lab Sci 1974;11:73–5.
  1211. Isenberg HD. Significance of environmental microbiology in nosocomial infections and the care of hospitalized patients. In: Lorian V, ed. Significance of medical microbiology in the care of patients. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1977;220–34.
  1212. McGowan JE Jr, Weinstein RA. The role of the laboratory in control of nosocomial infection. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Raven, 1998;143–64.
  1213. Turner AG, Wilkins JR, Craddock JG. Bacterial aerosolization from an ultrasonic cleaner. J Clin Microbiol 1975;1:289–93.
  1214. (343) Bond WW, Sehulster LM. Microbiological culturing of environmental and medical-device surfaces. In: Isenberg HD, Miller JM, Bell M, eds. Clinical microbiology procedures handbook, section 11. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 2004 (in press).
  1215. Cole EC, Cook CE. Characterization of infectious aerosols in health care facilities: an aid to effective engineering controls and preventive strategies. Am J Infect Control 1998;26:452–64.
  1216. Nevalainen A, Willeke K, Liebhaber F, Pastuszka J, Burge H, Henningson E. Bioaerosol sampling. In: Willeke K, Baron PA, eds. Aerosol management. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993;471–92.
  1217. Cox CS. The aerobiological pathway of microorganisms. Chichester UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1987.
  1218. (349) Wolf HW, Skaliy P, Hall LB, et al. Sampling microbiological aerosols. Public Health Service publication No. 686. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC: 1964.
  1219. Zeterberg JM. A review of respiratory virology and the spread of virulent and possible antigenic viruses via air conditioning systems. Ann Allergy 1973;31:228–34.
  1220. Randall CW, Ledbetter JO. Bacterial air pollution from activated sludge units. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1966;Nov/Dec:506–19.
  1221. Salem H, Gardner DE. Health aspects of bioaerosols. In: Lighthart B, Mohr AJ, eds. Atmospheric microbial aerosols, theory and applications. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1985;304–30.
  1222. Sattar SA, Ijaz MK. Spread of viral infections by aerosols. Crit Rev Environ Control 1987;17:89–131.
  1223. (345) Buttner MP, Willeke K, Grinshpun SA. Sampling and analysis of airborne microorganisms. In:Hurst CJ, Knudsen GR, McInerney MJ, Stetzenbach LD, Walter MV, eds. Manual of environmental microbiology. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1997;629–40.
  1224. (346) Jensen PA, Schafer MP. Sampling and characterization of bioaerosols. In: NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods;Cincinnati OH;CDC;1998: p. 82–112. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/niosh/nmam/pdfs/chapter-j.pdf.]
  1225. Jolley AE. The value of surveillance cultures on neonatal intensive care units. J Hosp Infect 1993;25:153–9.
  1226. Hardy KA, McGowan KL, Fisher MC, Schidlow DV. Pseudomonas cepacia in the hospital setting: lack of transmission between cystic fibrosis patients. J Pediatr 1986;109:51–4.
  1227. Hambraeus A, Lagerqvist-Widh A, Zettersten U, Engberg S, Sedin G, Sjoberg L. Spread of Klebsiella in a neonatal ward. Scand J Infect Dis 1991;23:189–94.
  1228. Humphreys H, Peckham D, Patel P, Knox A. Airborne dissemination of Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia from adult patients with cystic fibrosis. Thorax 1994;49:1157–9.
  1229. Pankhurst CL, Harrison VE, Philpott-Howard J. Evaluation of contamination of the dentist and dental surgery environment with Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia during treatment of children with cystic fibrosis. Int J Paediatr Dent 1995;5:243–7.
  1230. Weber DO, Gooch JJ, Wood WR, Britt EM, Kraft RO. Influence of operating room surface contamination on surgical wounds: a prospective study. Arch Surg 1976;111:484–8.
  1231. Pfeiffer EH, Wittig JR, Dunkelberg H, Werner HP. Hygienic and bacteriological comparative studies in 50 hospitals. V. Bacterial contamination of hospital surfaces. Zentralbl Bakteriol [B] 1978;167:11–21. (German)
  1232. Sattar SA, Lloyd-Evans N, Springthorpe VS. Institutional outbreaks of rotavirus diarrhea: potential role of fomites and environmental surfaces as vehicles for virus transmission. J Hyg (Camb) 1986;96:277–89.
  1233. Smith SM, Eng RH, Padberg FT Jr. Survival of nosocomial pathogenic bacteria at ambient temperature. J Med 1996;27:293–302.
  1234. Craythorn JM, Barbour AG, Matsen JM, Britt MR, Garibaldi RA. Membrane filter contact technique for bacteriological sampling of moist surfaces. J Clin Microbiol 1980;12:250–5.
  1235. Scott E, Bloomfield SF, Barlow CG. A comparison of contact plate and calcium alginate swab techniques for quantitative assessment of bacteriological contamination of environmental surfaces. J Appl Bacteriol 1984;56:317–20.
  1236. Poletti L, Pasquarella C, Pitzurra M, Savino A. Comparative efficiency of nitrocellulose membranes versus RODAC plates in microbial sampling on surfaces. J Hosp Infect 1999;41:195–201.
  1237. Russell AD. Factors influencing the efficacy of antimicrobial agents. In: Russell AD, Hugo WB, Ayliffe GAJ, eds. Principles and practices of disinfection, preservation and sterilization. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science, 1999;95–123.
  1238. (347) International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Sterilization of medical devices — microbiological methods, Part 1. ISO Standard 11737-1. Paramus, NJ: International Organization for Standardization, 1995.
  1239. Favero MS, Gabis DA, Vesley D. Environmental monitoring procedures. In: Speck ML, ed. Compendium of methods for the microbiological examination of foods, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association;1984;47–61.
  1240. Favero MS, Bond WW, Petersen NJ, Berquist KR, Maynard JE. Detection methods for study of the stability of hepatitis B antigen on surfaces. J Infect Dis 1974;129:210–2.
  1241. Favero MS, McDade JJ, Robertsen JA, Hoffmann RK, Edwards RW. Microbiological sampling of surfaces. J Appl Bacteriol 1968;31:336–43.
  1242. Petersen NJ, Collins DE, Marshall JH. Evaluation of skin cleansing procedures using the wipe-rinse technique. Health Lab Sci 1974;11:182–97.
  1243. Schalkowsky S, Hall LB, Kline RC. Potential effects of recent findings on spacecraft sterilization requirements. Space Life Sci 1969;1:520–30.
  1244. Hall LB, Lyle RG. Foundations of planetary quarantine. Environ Biol Med 1971;1:5–8.
  1245. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Uses of inorganic hypochlorite (bleach) in health-care facilities. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997;10:597–610.
  1246. Mallison GF. Central services and linens and laundry. In: Bennett JV, Brachman PS, eds. Hospital infections. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, & Co, 1986;251–6.
  1247. (365) Blaser MJ, Smith PE, Cody HJ, Wang W-LL, LaForce FM. Killing of fabric-associated bacteria in hospital laundry by low-temperature washing. J Infect Dis 1984;149:48–57.
  1248. Centers for Disease Control. Outbreak of viral hepatitis in the staff of a pediatric ward — California. MMWR 1977;28:77–9.
  1249. Shah PC, Krajden S, Kane J, Summerbell RC. Tinea corporis caused by Microsporum canis: report of a nosocomial outbreak. Eur J Epidemiol 1988;4:33–7.
  1250. (353) Barrie D, Hoffman PN, Wilson JA, Kramer JM. Contamination of hospital linen by Bacillus cereus. Epidemiol Infect 1994;113:297–306.
  1251. Standaert SM, Hutcheson RH, Schaffner W. Nosocomial transmission of Salmonella gastroenteritis to laundry workers in a nursing home. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:22–6.
  1252. 1Pasternak J, Richtmann R, Ganme APP, et al. Scabies epidemic: price and prejudice. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1994;15:540–2.
  1253. (357) Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation. Processing of reusable surgical textiles for use in health care facilities: ANSI/AAMI recommended practice ST65. Arlington, VA: Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, 2000;16.
  1254. Association of Operating Room Nurses. Recommended practices for surgical attire: AORN standards and rrecommended practices. AORN J 1995;62:141–2.
  1255. Loh W, Ng VV, Holton J. Bacterial flora on the white coats of medical students. J Hosp Infect 2000;45:65–8.
  1256. Belkin NL. Use of scrubs and related apparel in healthcare facilities. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:401– 4.
  1257. Belkin NL. Home laundering of soiled surgical scrubs: surgical site infections and the home environment. Am J Infect Control 2000;29:58–64.
  1258. (355) Joint Committee on Healthcare Laundry Guidelines. Guidelines for healthcare linen service. Hallendale, FL: Textile Rental Service Association of America, 1999.
  1259. (356) Greene VW. Microbiological contamination control in hospitals: part 6 — roles of central service and the laundry. Hospitals JAHA 1970;44:98–103.
  1260. (350) Wagner RA. Partitioned laundry improves bacteria control. Hospitals JAHA 1966;40:148–51.
  1261. (351) Hambraeus A, Malmborg AS. Is a bed centre in a hospital a hygienic hazard? J Hyg (Camb) 1982;88:143–7.
  1262. (352) McDonald LL, Pugliese G. Textile processing service. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;1031–4.
  1263. (354) Legnani PP, Leoni E. Factors affecting the bacteriological contamination of commercial washing machines. Zentralbl Hyg Umweltmed 1997;200:319–33.
  1264. Maki DG, Alvarado C, Hassemer C. Double-bagging of items from isolation rooms is unnecessary as an infection control measure: a comparative study of surface contamination with single- and double-bagging. Infect Control 1986;7:535–7.
  1265. Garner JS, Simmons BP. CDC guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. Infect Control 1983;4: 245–325 and Am J Infect Control 1984;12:103–63.
  1266. Weinstein SA, Gantz NM, Pelletier C, Hibert D. Bacterial surface contamination of patients’ linen: isolation precautions versus standard care. Am J Infect Control 1989;17:264–7.
  1267. (358) Hughes HG. Chutes in hospitals. Can Hosp 1964;41:56–7, 87.
  1268. (359) Michaelsen GS. Designing linen chutes to reduce spread of infectious organisms. Hospitals JAHA 1965;39 (3):116–9.
  1269. (360) Hoch KW. Laundry chute cleaning recommendations [letter]. Infect Control 1982;3:360.
  1270. (361) Whyte W, Baird G, Annand R. Bacterial contamination on the surface of hospital linen chutes. J Hyg (Camb) 1969;67:427–35.
  1271. (363) Walter WG, Schillinger JE. Bacterial survival in laundered fabrics. Appl Microbiol 1975;29:368– 73.
  1272. (362) Taylor LJ. Segregation, collection, and disposal of hospital laundry and waste. J Hosp Infect 1988;11 (Suppl. A):57–63.
  1273. Barrie D. How hospital linen and laundry services are provided. J Hosp Infect 1994;27:219–35.
  1274. Riggs CH, Sherrill JC. Textile laundering technology. Hallendale FL: Textile Rental Service Association; 1999;92–7.
  1275. Mouton RP, Bekkers JH. Bacteriological results of routine procedures in a hospital laundry. Folia Med Neerl 1967;10:71–6.
  1276. Nicholes PS. Bacteria in laundered fabrics. Am J Public Health 1970;60:2175–80.
  1277. Arnold L. A sanitary study of commercial laundry practices. Am J Public Health 1938;28:839–44.
  1278. (364) Belkin NL. Aseptics and aesthetics of chlorine bleach: can its use in laundering be safely abandoned? Am J Infect Control 1998;26:149–51.
  1279. Jordan WE, Jones DV. Antiviral effectiveness of chlorine bleach in household laundry use. Am J Dis Child 1969;117:313–6.
  1280. Hittman Associates, Inc. Energy efficient water use in hospitals [Final summary report (H-W8000-78­ 756FR)]. Prepared for the University of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1979. Contract No. P.O. 4627702.
  1281. (366) Jaska JM, Fredell DL. Impact of detergent systems on bacterial survival on laundered fabrics. Appl Environ Microbiol 1980;39:743–8.
  1282. (367) Battles DR, Vesley D. Wash water temperature and sanitation in the hospital laundry. J Environ Health 1981;43:244–50.
  1283. (368) Christian RR, Manchester JT, Mellor MT. Bacteriological quality of fabrics washed at lower-than­ standard temperatures in a hospital laundry facility. Appl Environ Microbiol 1983;45:591–7.
  1284. (369) Smith JA, Neil KR, Davidson CG, Davidson RW. Effect of water temperature on bacterial killing in laundry. Infect Control 1987;8:204–9.
  1285. (370) Tompkins DS, Johnson P, Fittall BR. Low-temperature washing of patients’ clothing: effects of detergent with disinfectant and a tunnel drier on bacterial survival. J Hosp Infect 1988;12:51–8.
  1286. (371) Ayliffe GAJ, Collins BJ, Taylor LJ. Laundering. In: Wright PSG, ed. Hospital-acquired Infection: principles and Prevention. Bristol, UK: 1982;101–6.
  1287. Koller W, Wewalka G. A new method for microbiological evaluation of disinfecting laundering processes. Zbl Bakt Hyg I Abt Orig B 1982;176:463–71.
  1288. (372) Meyer CL, Eitzen HE, Schreiner RL, Gfell MA, Moye L, Kleiman MB. Should linen in newborn intensive care units be autoclaved? Pediatrics 1981;67:362–4.
  1289. (373) Wagg RE. Disinfection of textiles in laundering and dry cleaning. Chem Ind 1965;44:1830–4.
  1290. (374) Bates CJ, Wilcox MH, Smith TL, Spencer RC. The efficacy of a hospital dry cleaning cycle in disinfecting material contaminated with bacteria and viruses. J Hosp Infect 1993;23:255–62.
  1291. (375) Oehnel E. Drycleaning in the hospital laundry. Can Hosp 1971;September:66–7.
  1292. DiGacomo JC, Odom JW, Ritoto PC, Swan KC. Cost containment in the operating room: use of reusables versus disposable clothing. Am Surg 1992;58:654–6.
  1293. American Society for Testing Materials. Standard test method for resistance of materials used in protective clothing to penetration by synthetic blood. ASTM, 1998;F1670–98.
  1294. American Society for Testing Materials. Standard test method for resistance of materials used in protective clothing to penetration by bloodborne pathogens using phi-X174 bacteriophage penetration as a test system. ASTM 1997;F1671–976.
  1295. Belkin NL. Are “impervious” surgical gowns really liquid-proof? Bull Am Col Surgeons 1999;84:19– 36.
  1296. Belkin NL. OR gowns — even a “pass” can fail. AORN J 1999;70:302–4.
  1297. Laufman H, Belkin NL, Meyer KK. A critical review of a century’s progress in surgical apparel: how far have we come? J Am Col Surgeons 2000;191:554–68.
  1298. Leonas KK, Jinkins RS. The relationship of selected fabric characteristics and the barrier effectiveness of surgical gown fabrics. Am J Infect Control 1997;25:16–23.
  1299. Meyer KK, Beck WC. Gown-glove interface: a possible solution to the danger zone. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16:488–90.
  1300. McCullough EA. Methods for determining the barrier efficacy of surgical gowns. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:368–74.
  1301. Pissiotis CA, Komborozos V, Papoutsi C, Skrekas G. Factors that influence the effectiveness of surgical gowns in the operating theater. Eur J Surg 1997;163:597–604.
  1302. Association of Operating Room Nurses (AORN). Recommended practices for use and selection of barrier materials for surgical gowns and drapes. Association of Operating Room Nurses. AORN J 1996;63:650, 653–4.
  1303. Belkin NL, Koch FT. OR barrier materials — Necessity or extravagance? AORN J 1998;67:443–5.
  1304. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. A review of single-use and reusable gowns and drapes in health care. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:248–57.
  1305. Murphy L. Cost/benefit study of reusable and disposable OR draping materials. J Healthc Mater Manage 1993;11:44–8.
  1306. (376) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Consumer products treated with pesticides. Office of Pesticide Programs. Available at: [This link no longer active: www.epa.gov/opp00001/citizens/treatart.htm. Similar information may be found at EPA Pesticides,  accessed May 2016]
  1307. 1Kalyon BD, Olgun U. Antibacterial efficacy of triclosan-incorporated polymers. Am J Infect Control 2001;29:124–5.
  1308. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Clarification of treated articles exemption. Availability of draft PR notice. Federal Register 1998;63:19256–8.
  1309. Mayer CE. FTC Challenges antibacterial product. Washington, DC: Washington Post, September 17,1999;A09.
  1310. (377) Fujita K, Lilly HA, Kidson A, Ayliffe GAJ. Gentamicin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection from mattresses in a burns unit. Br Med J 1981;283:219–20.
  1311. (378) Grubb DJ, Watson KC. Pseudomonas septicaemia from plastic mattresses [letter]. Lancet 1982;1:518.
  1312. (379) Sherertz RJ, Sullivan ML. An outbreak of infections with Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in burn patients: contamination of patients’ mattresses. J Infect Dis 1985;151:252–8.
  1313. (380) Ndawula EM, Brown L. Mattresses as reservoirs of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [letter]. Lancet 1991;337:488.
  1314. (381) O’Donoghue MAT, Allen KD. Costs of an outbreak of wound infections in an orthopaedic ward. J Hosp Infect 1992;22:73–9.
  1315. (382) Weernink A, Severin WPJ, Thernberg T, Dijkshoorn L. Pillows, an unexpected source of Acinetobacter. J Hosp Infect 1995;29:189–99.
  1316. Newsome TW, Johns LA, Pruitt BA Jr. Use of an air-fluidized bed in the care of patients with extensive burns. Am J Surg 1972;124:52–6.
  1317. (383) Scheidt A, Drusin LM. Bacteriologic contamination in an air-fluidized bed. J Trauma 1983;23:241–2.
  1318. (384) Freeman R, Gould FK, Ryan DW, Chamberlain J, Sisson PR. Nosocomial infection due to enterococci attributed to a fluidized microsphere bed: the value of pyrolysis mass spectrometry. J Hosp Infect 1994;27:187–93.
  1319. Sharbaugh RJ, Hargest TS. Bactericidal effect of the air-fluidized bed. Am Surgeon 1971;37:583–6.
  1320. Sharbaugh RJ, Hargest TS, Wright FA. Further studies on the bactericidal effect of the air-fluidized bed. Am Surgeon 1973;39:253–6.
  1321. Winters WD. A new perspective of microbial survival and dissemination in a prospectively contaminated air-fluidized bed model. Am J Infect Control 1990;18:307–15.
  1322. (385) Clancy MJ. Nosocomial infection and microsphere beds [letter]. Lancet 1993;342:680–1.
  1323. (386) Clancy MJ. Nosocomial infection due to enterococci attributed to a fluidized microsphere bed [letter]. J Hosp Infect 1994;28:324–5.
  1324. Vesley D, Hankinson SE, Lauer JL. Microbial survival and dissemination associated with an air- fluidized therapy unit. Am J Infect Control 1986;14:35–40.
  1325. Bolyard EA, Townsend TR, Horan T. Airborne contamination associated with in-use air-fluidized beds: a descriptive study. Am J Infect Control 1987;15:75–8.
  1326. (387) Jacobsen E, Gurevich I, Cunha BA. Air-fluidized beds and negative-pressure isolation rooms [letter]. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:217–8.
  1327. Cooper JE. Pets in hospitals. Br Med J 1976;1:698–700.
  1328. Egerton JR. Pets and zoonoses. Med J Aust 1982;2:311.
  1329. Yamauchi T. Pet programs in hospitals. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12:707.
  1330. Khan MA, Farrag N. Animal-assisted activity and infection control implications in a healthcare setting. J Hosp Infect 2000;46:4–11.
  1331. Weber DJ, Rutala WA. Epidemiology and prevention of nosocomial infections associated with animals in the hospital. In: Mayhall CG, ed. Hospital epidemiology and infection control, 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999;1399–421.
  1332. Acha PN, Szyfres B. Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Pan American Health Organization, 1987. Scientific publication No. 503.
  1333. Elliot DL, Tolle SW, Goldberg L, Miller JB. Pet-associated illness. N Engl J Med 1985;313:985–95.
  1334. Marx MB. Parasites, pets, and people. Primary Care 1991;18:153–65.
  1335. Goldstein EJ. Household pets and human infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1991;5:117–30.
  1336. Chomel BB. Zoonoses of house pets other than dogs, cats, and birds. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1992;11:479–
  1337. Gnann JW Jr, Bressler GS, Bodet CA III, Avent CK. Human blastomycosis after a dog bite. Ann Intern Med 1983;98:48–9.
  1338. Garcia VF. Animal bites and Pasteurella infections. Pediatr Rev 1997;18:127–30.
  1339. Crowder HR, Dorn CR, Smith RE. Group A Streptococcus in pets and group A streptococcal disease in man. Int J Zoonoses 1978;5:45–54.
  1340. (397) CDC. Reptile-associated salmonellosis — selected states, 1996–1998. MMWR 1999;48:1009–13.
  1341. Devriese LA, Ieven M, Goossens H, et al. Presence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in farm and pet animals. Antimicrob Agent Chemother 1996;40:2285–7.
  1342. Scott GM, Thomson R, Malone-Lee J, Ridgway GL. Cross-infection between animals and man: Possible feline tranmission of Staphylococcus aureus infection in humans? J Hosp Infect 1988;12:29–34.
  1343. Weinberg A. Ecology and epidemiology of zoonotic pathogens. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1991;5:1–6.
  1344. Yu V, Meissner C. Zoonoses. In: Schaechter M, Medoff G, Schlessinger D, eds. Mechanisms of microbial diseases. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1989;749–64.
  1345. Ryan KJ. Some bacteria causing zoonotic diseases. In: Sherris JC, ed. Medical microbiology, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Elsevier, 1990;489–98.
  1346. Chang HJ, Miller HL, Watkins N, et al. An epidemic of Malassezia pachydermatis in an intensive care nursery associated with colonization of healthcare workers’ pet dog. N Engl J Med 1998;338:706–11.
  1347. Drusin LM, Ross BG, Rhodes KH, Krause AN, Scott RA. Nosocomial ringworm in a neonatal intensive care unit: a nurse and her cat. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000;21:605–7.
  1348. Richet HM, Craven PC, Brown JM, et al. A cluster of Rhodococcus (Gordona) bronchialis sternal- wound infections after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 1991;324:104–9.
  1349. (394) Saylor K. Pet visitation program. J Gerontol Nurs 1998;24:36–8.
  1350. Corson SA, O’Leary Corson E. Pets as mediators of therapy. Curr Psychiatr Ther 1978;18:195–205.
  1351. Fick KM. The influence of an animal on social interactions of nursing home residents in a group setting. Am J Occup Ther 1993;47:529–34.
  1352. Gunby P. Patient progressing well? He must have a pet. JAMA 1979;241:438.
  1353. Culliton BJ. Take two pets and call me in the morning. Science 1987;237:1560–1.
  1354. Wilkes CN, Shalko TK, Trahan M. Pet Rx: Implications for good health. Health Educ 1989;20:6–9.
  1355. Doyle K, Kukowski T. Utilization of pets in a hospice program. Health Educ 1989;20:10–1.
  1356. Teeter LM. Pet therapy program. J Amer Vet Med Assoc 1997;210:1435–8.
  1357. Gammonley J, Yates J. Pet projects: animal assisted therapy in nursing homes. J Gerontol Nurs 1991;17:12–5.
  1358. (395) Draper RJ, Gerber GJ, Layng EM. Defining the role of pet animals in psychotherapy. Psychiat J Univ Ottawa 1990;15:169–72.
  1359. Allen DT. Effects of dogs on human health. J Amer Vet Med Assoc 1997;210:1136–9.
  1360. (391) Delta Society. Standards of practice for animal-assisted activities and animal-assisted therapy. Renton, WA: Delta Society, 1996.
  1361. (392) Fox JG. Transmissible drug resistance in Shigella and Salmonella isolated from pet monkeys and their owners. J Med Primatol 1975;4:165–71.
  1362. (393) Ostrowski SR, Leslie MJ, Parrott T, Abelt S, Piercy PE. B-virus from pet macaque monkeys: an emerging threat in the United States? Emerg Infect Dis 1998;4:117–21.
  1363. CDC. How to prevent transmission of intestinal roundworms from pets to people. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/roundwrm/roundwrm.htm.]
  1364. (146) Boyce JM, Pittet D. Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23 (Suppl):S1–S40.
  1365. (388) American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology. Tips to remember: indoor allergens. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.aaaai.org/patients/publicedmat/tips/indoorallergens.htm.]
  1366. (389) Duncan SL, APIC Guideline Committee. APIC State-of-the-art report: the implications of service animals in healthcare settings. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:170–80.
  1367. (390) Murray AB, Ferguson A, Morrison BJ. The frequency and severity of cat allergy vs. dog allergy in atopic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1983;72:145–9.
  1368. Hodson T, Custovic A, Simpson A, Chapman M, Woodcock A, Green R. Washing the dog reduces dog allergen levels, but the dog needs to be washed twice a week. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999;103:581–5.
  1369. Brickel CN. The therapeutic roles of cat mascots with a hospital based population: a staff survey. Gerontologist 1979;19:368–72.
  1370. 1Thomas W, Stermer M. Eden alternative principles hold promise for the future of long-term care. Balance 1999;3:14–7.
  1371. Tavormina CE. Embracing the Eden alternative in long-term care environments. Geriatr Nurs 1999;20:158–61.
  1372. Brook I, Fish CH, Schantz PM, Cotton DD. Toxocariasis in an institution for the mentally retarded. Infect Control 1981;2:317–9.
  1373. Huminer D, Symon R, Groskopf I, et al. Seroepidemiological study of toxocariasis and strongyloidiasis in adult mentally retarded institutionalized subjects. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1992;46:278–81.
  1374. Huminer D, Pitlik SD, Block C, Kaufman L, Amit S, Rosenfeld JB. Aquarium-borne Mycobacterium marinum skin infection: report of a case and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 1986;122:698–703.
  1375. Lewis FMT, Marsh BJ, von Reyn CF. Fish tank exposure and cutaneous infections due to Mycobacterium marinum: tuberculin skin testing, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:390–7.
  1376. (398) U.S. Department of Justice. Americans with Disabilities Act. Public Law 101-336 (28 CFR 36.101 et seq.). Title III, Public Accomodations Operated by Private Entities, Sect. 302, Prohibition of Discrimination by Public Accomodations;42 USC 12101 et seq. July 26, 1990.
  1377. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Disability Rights Section. Commonly asked questions about service animals in places of business, 1996.
  1378. Schachter J, Sung M, Meyer KF. Potential danger of Q fever in a university hospital environment. J Infect Dis 1971;123:301–4.
  1379. Konkle DM, Nelson KN, Lunn DP. Nosocomial transmission of Cryptosporidium in a veterinary hospital. J Vet Intern Med 1997;11:340–3.
  1380. House JK, Mainar-Jaime RC, Smith BP, House AM, Kamiya DY. Risk factors for nosocomial Salmonella infection among hospitalized horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1999;214:1511–6.
  1381. Weese JS, Staempfli HR, Prescott JF. Isolation of environmental Clostridium difficile from a veterinary teaching hospital. J Vet Diagn Invest 2000;12:449–52.
  1382. Boerlin P, Eugster S, Gaschen F, Straub R, Schawalder P. Transmission of opportunistic pathogens in a veterinary teaching hospital. Vet Microbiol 2001;82:347–9.
  1383. Schott HC II, Ewart SL, Walker RD, et al. An outbreak of salmonellosis among horses at a veterinary teaching hospital. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001;218:1152–9,1170.
  1384. Kim LM, Morley PS, Traub-Dargatz JL, Salman MD, Gentry-Weeks C. Factors associated with Salmonella shedding among equine colic patients at a veterinary teaching hospital. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001;218:740–8.
  1385. Seguin JC, Walker RD, Caron JP, et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus outbreak in a veterinary teaching hospital: potential human-to-animal transmission. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1459– 63.
  1386. Shen DT, Crawford TB, Gorham JR, et al. Inactivation of equine infectious anemia virus by chemical disinfectants. Am J Vet Res 1977;38:1217–9.
  1387. Scott FW. Virucidal disinfectants and feline viruses. Am J Vet Res 1980;41:410–4.
  1388. Brown TT. Laboratory evaluation of selected disinfectants as virucidal agents against porcine parvovirus, pseudorabies virus, and transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Am J Vet Res 1981;42:1033–6.
  1389. Saknimit M, Inatsuki I, Sugiyama Y, et al. Virucidal efficacy of physico-chemical treatments against coronaviruses and parvoviruses of laboratory animals. Exp Anim 1988;37:341–5.
  1390. Bruins G, Dyer JA. Environmental considerations of disinfectants used in agriculture. Rev Sci Tech 1995;14:81–94.
  1391. Quinn PJ, Markey BK. Disinfection and disease prevention in veterinary medicine. In: Block SS, ed. Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001;1069–103.
  1392. Fox JG, Lipman NS. Infections transmitted by large and small laboratory animals. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1991;5:131–63.
  1393. (401) U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Personal Protective Equipment for General Industry, Final Rule (29 CFR 1910 §1910.132, 1910.138). Federal Register 1994;59:16334–64.
  1394. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Public Law 89-544 (The Animal Welfare Act of 1966). 7 USC § 2131­ 2156.
  1395. (399) U.S. Department of Agriculture. Public Law 99-198 Food Security Act of 1985, Subtitle F – Animal Welfare. 7 USC § 2131.
  1396. Althaus H, Sauerwald M, Schrammeck E. Waste from hospitals and sanatoria. Zbl Bakteriol Hyg I Abt Orig B 1983;178:1–29.
  1397. Kalnowski G, Wiegand H, Henning R. The microbial contamination of hospital waste. Zbl Bakteriol Hyg I Abt Orig B 1983;178:364–79.
  1398. Mose JR, Reinthaler F. Microbial contamination of hospital waste and household refuse. Zbl Bakteriol Hyg I Abt Orig B 1985;181:98–110.
  1399. Collins CH, Kennedy DA. The microbiological hazards of municipal and clinical wastes. J Appl Bacteriol 1992;73:1–6.
  1400. Rutala WA, Odette RL, Samsa GP. Management of infectious waste by U.S. hospitals. JAMA 1989;262:1635–40.
  1401. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. The public health implications of medical waste: a report to Congress. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1990.
  1402. Hedrick ER. Infectious waste management — will science prevail? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1988;9:488–90.
  1403. Keene J. Medical waste management: public pressure vs. sound science. Hazard Mat Control 1989;Sept/Oct:29–36.
  1404. Keene J. Medical waste: a minimal hazard. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1991;12:682–5.
  1405. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. Mismatch between science and policy. N Engl J Med 1991;325:578–82.
  1406. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA guide for infectious waste management. Washington, DC:
  1407. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986. EPA Publication No. 530SW86014.
  1408. (402) U.S. Department of Transportation. Hazardous materials regulations. 49 CFR Parts 171–180, Division 6.2;and Hazardous Materials: Revision to Standards for Infectious Substances and Genetically– Modified Microorganisms: Proposed Rule. Federal Register 1998;63:46843–59.
  1409. (403) U.S. Postal Service. C 023.8.0 Infectious substances (Hazard Class 6, Division 6.2) et seq. Available at: [This link no longer active: http://pe.usps.gov/text/dmm/c023.htm.]
  1410. (404) Greene R, Miele DJ, Slavik NS. Technical assistance manual: state regulatory oversight of medical waste treatment technologies, 2nd ed: a report of the State and Territorial Association on Alternative Treatment Technologies, 1994.
  1411. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 40 CFR Part 60. Standards of performance for new stationary sources and emission guidelines for existing sources: hospital/medical/infectious waste incinerators; Final Rule. Federal Register 1997;62:48347–91.
  1412. CDC/National Institutes of Health. Biosafety in microbiological and biomedical laboratories. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985. DHHS Publication No. (CDC) 93–8395.
  1413. (409) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, CDC. Possession, use, and transfer of select agents and toxins, interim final rule (42 CFR Part 73). Federal Register, December 13, 2002;67(240):76885–905.
  1414. 1413. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Agricultural Bioterrorism Protection Act of 2002; Possession, use, and transfer of biological agents and toxins: interim final rule (9 CFR Part 121). Federal Register. December 13, 2002;67(240):76907–38.
  1415. (410) CDC. Recommendations on infective waste. Atlanta, GA: Office of Biosafety and Hospital Infections Program, 1988;1–6.
  1416. (405) CDC. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. NIOSH Alert: Preventing needlestick injuries in health care settings. Cincinnati, OH: DHHS, 1999. DHHS-NIOSH Publication No. 2000–108.
  1417. Rutala WA, Stiegel MM, Sarubbi FA. Decontamination of laboratory microbiological waste by steam sterilization. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982;43:1311–6.
  1418. Lauer JL, Battles DR, Vesley D. Decontaminating infectious laboratory waste by autoclaving. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982;44:690–4.
  1419. Palenik CJ, Cumberlander ND. Effects of steam sterilization on the contents of sharps containers. Am J Infect Control 1993;21:28–33.
  1420. (406) Weber AM, Boudreau Y, Mortimer VD. Stericycle, Inc., Morton, WA. HETA 98-0027-2709. NIOSH, CDC, Cincinnati, OH, 1998.
  1421. (407) Johnson KR, Braden CR, Cairns KL, et al. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from medical waste. JAMA 2000;284:1683–8.
  1422. (408) Emery R, Sprau D, Lao YJ, Pryor W. Release of bacterial aerosols during infectious waste compaction: An initial hazard evaluation for health care workers. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1992;53:339–45.
  1423. National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS). Protection of laboratory workers from instrument biohazards and infectious disease transmitted by blood, body fluids, and tissue. Approved guideline. 1997, NCCLS Document M29-A (ISBN1-56238-339-6).
  1424. Snyder JW, Check W. Bioterrorism threats to our future: the role of the clinical microbiology laboratory in detection, identification, and confirmation of biological agents. Report of the October 27–29, 2000 Colloquium, American Academy of Microbiology, American College of Microbiology. Available at: American Society for Microbiology website [Accessed August 2016, current version of this document may differ from original.]
  1425. CDC. List of select agents and biological toxins. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/od/sap/docs/salist.pdf.]
  1426. Bond WW. Survival of hepatitis B virus in the environment. JAMA 1984;252:397–8.
  1427. Slade JE, Pike EB, Eglin RP, Colbourne JS, Kurtz JB. The survival of human immunodeficiency virus in water, sewage, and sea water. Water Sci Technol 1989;21:55–9.
  1428. Geertsma RE, Van Asten JAAM. Sterilization of prions. Zentr Steril 1995;3:385–94.
  1429. (52) Johnson MW, Mitch WE, Heller AH, Spector R. The impact of an educational program on gentamicin use in a teaching hospital. Am J Med 1982;73:9–14.
  1430. (53) Soumerai SB, Salem-Schatz S, Avorn J, Casteris CS, Ross-Degnan D, Popovsky MA. A controlled trial of educational outreach to improve blood transfusion practice. JAMA 1993;270:961–6.
  1431. 1 (54) Eisenberg JM. An education program to modify laboratory use by house staff. J Med Educ 1977;52:578–81.
  1432. (55) Rello J, Quintana E, Ausina V, Puzo V, Puzo C, Net A, Prats G. Risk factors for Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia in critically ill patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;142:1320–4.
  1433. (56) McWhinney PHM, Kibbler CC, Hamon MD, et al. Progress in the diagnosis and management of aspergillosis in bone marrow transplantation: 13 years’ experience. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17:397–404.
  1434. (74) Aisner J, Murillo J, Schimpff SC, Steere AC. Invasive aspergillosis in acute leukemia: Correlation with nose cultures and antibiotic use. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:4–9.
  1435. (102) Rhame FS. Endemic nosocomial filamentous fungal disease: a proposed structure for conceptualizing and studying the environmental hazard. Infect Control 1986;7S:124–5.
  1436. (Table 1) Mutchler JE. Principles of ventilation. In: NIOSH. The industrial environment — its evaluation and control. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, NIOSH, 1973. Publication #74-117. Available at: [This link is no longer active: www.cdc.gov/niosh/74-117.html.]
  1437. Breiman RF, Cozen W, Fields BS, et al. Role of air sampling in investigation of an outbreak of Legionnaires’ disease associated with exposure to aerosols from an evaporative condenser. J Infect Dis 1990;161:1257–61.
  1438. (Appendix; 9) CDC. Procedures for the recovery of Legionella from the environment. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, CDC, 1992;1–13.
  1439. Costerton JW, Lewandowski Z, Caldwell DE, Korber DR, Lappin-Scott HM. Microbial biofilms. Ann Rev Microbiol 1995;49:711–45.
  1440. LeChevallier MW, Babcock TM, Lee RG. Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol 1987;53:2714–24.
  1441. Nagy LA, Olson BH. Occurrence and significance of bacteria, fungi, and yeasts associated with distribution pipe surfaces. Proceeds of the Water Quality Technology Conference. Portland, OR: 1985;213–38.
  1442. Maki DG, Martin WT. Nationwide epidemic of septicemia caused by contaminated infusion products. IV growth of microbial pathogens in fluids for intravenous infusion. J Infect Dis 1975;131:267–72.
  1443. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 1999;284:1318–22.
  1444. Costerton JW, Khoury AE, Ward KH, Anwar H. Practical measures to control device-related bacterial infections. Int J Artif Organs 1993;16:765–70.
  1445. Nickel JC, Costerton JW, McLean RJC, Olson M. Bacterial biofilms: influence on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of urinary tract infections. J Antimicrobial Chemother 1994;33 (Suppl. A):31– 41.
  1446. LeChevallier MW, Cawthon CD, Lee RG. Inactivation of biofilm bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1988;54:2492–9.
  1447. Anwar J, Strap JL, Costerton JW. Establishment of aging biofilms: possible mechanism of bacterial resistance to antimicrobial therapy. Antimicrobiol Agents Chemotherapy 1992;36:1347–51.
  1448. Stewart PS. Biofilm accumulation model that predicts antibiotic resistance to Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Antimicrobiol Agents Chemotherapy 1994;38:1052–8.
  1449. Chen X, Stewart PS. Chlorine penetration into artificial biofilm is limited by a reaction-diffusion interaction. Environ Sci Technol 1996;30:2078–83.
  1450. Huang C-T, Yu FP, McFeters GA, Stewart PS. Non-uniform spatial patterns of respiratory activity with biofilms during disinfection. Appl Environ Microbiol 1995;61:2252–6.
  1451. Donlan RM, Pipes WO. Selected drinking water characteristics and attached microbial population density. J AWWA 1988;80:70–6.
  1452. Reasoner DJ, Geldreich EE. A new medium for the enumeration and subculture of bacteria from potable water. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985;49:1–7.
  1453. Pass T, Wright R, Sharp B, Harding GB. Culture of dialysis fluids on nutrient-rich media for short periods at elevated temperatures underestimates microbial contamination. Blood Purif 1996;14:136–45.
  1454. Arduino MJ, Bland LA, Aguero SM, et al. Effects of incubation time and temperature on microbiologic sampling procedures for hemodialysis fluids. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:1462–5.
  1455. (234) Klein E, Pass T, Harding GB, Wright R, Million C. Microbial and endotoxin contamination in water and dialysate in the central United States. Artif Organs 1990;14:85–94.
  1456. (235) Man N-K, Degremont A, Darbord J-C, Collet M, Vaillant P. Evidence of bacterial biofilm in tubing from hydraulic pathway of hemodialysis system. Artif Organs 1998;22:596–600.
  1457. Pearson FC, Weary ME, Sargent HE, et al. Comparison of several control standard endotoxins to the National Reference Standard Endotoxin — an HIMA collaborative study. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985;50:91–3.
  1458. (Appendix; 1) Arnow PM, Weil D, Para MF. Prevalence of significance of Legionella pneumophila contamination of residential hot-tap water systems. J Infect Dis 1985;152:145–51.
  1459. (Appendix; 2) Shelton BG, Morris GK, Gorman GW. Reducing risks associated with Legionella bacteria in building water systems. In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1993;279– 81.
  1460. (Appendix; 3) Joly JR. Monitoring for the presence of Legionella: where, when, and how? In: Barbaree JM, Breiman RF, Dufour AP, eds. Legionella: current status and emerging perspectives. Washington, DC: American Society for Microbiology Press, 1993;211–6.
  1461. (Appendix; 7) Brenner DJ, Feeley JC, Weaver RE. Family VII. Legionellaceae. In: Krieg NR, Holt JG, eds. Bergey’s manual of systemic bacteriology, volume 1. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1984;279–88.
  1462. (Appendix; 8) Katz SM, Hammel JM. The effect of drying, heat, and pH on the survival of Legionella pneumophila. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1987;17:150–6.
  1463. (Box 2) Alary MA, Joly JR. Comparison of culture methods and an immunofluorescence assay for the detection of Legionella pneumophila in domestic hot water devices. Curr Microbiol 1992;25:19–25.
  1464. (Box 2) Vickers RM, Stout JE, Yu VL. Failure of a diagnostic monoclonal immunofluorescent reagent to detect Legionella pneumophila in environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990;56:2912–4.
  1465. (Box 2) Flournoy DJ, Belobraydic KA, Silberg SL, Lawrence CH, Guthrie PJ. False postive Legionella pneumophila direct immunofluorscence monoclonal antibody test caused by Bacillus cereus spores. Diag Microbiol Infect Dis 1988;9:123–5.
  1466. (Box 2) Bej AK, Majbubani MH, Atlas RM. Detection of viable Legionella pneumophila in water by polymerase chain reaction and gene probe methods. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991;57:597–600.
  1467. Schulze-Röbbecke R, Jung KD, Pullman H, Hundgeburth J. Control of Legionella pneumophila in a hospital hot water system. Zbl Hyg 1990;190:84–100.
  1468. Colbourne JS, Pratt DJ, Smith MG, Fisher-Hoch SP, Harper D. Water fittings as sources of Legionella pneumophila in a hospital plumbing system. Lancet 1984;1:210–3.
  1469. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National interim primary drinking water regulations: control of trihalomethanes in drinking water: final rules. Federal Register 1979;44:68624–705.
  1470. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. National interim primary drinking water regulations: Trihalomethanes. Federal Register 1983;48:8406–14.

 Top of Page

TOP