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Publications, Data, & Statistics

General

Huang DB, White AC. An updated review on Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2006;35(2):291-314, viii.
Farthing MJ. Giardia comes of age: progress in epidemiology, immunology and chemotherapy. [PDF - 4 pages] J Antimicrob Chemother. 1992;30(5):563-6..
Wolfe MS. Giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1992;5(1):93-100.
Farthing MJ. Giardiasis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1996;25(3):493-515.
Thompson RC. Giardiasis as a re-emerging infectious disease and its zoonotic potential. Int J Parasitol. 2000;30(12-13):1259-67.
Hill DR. Giardia lamblia. In: Gillespie SH, Pearson RD, eds. Principles and practice of clinical parasitology. Chisester, England: Joan Wiley & Sons; 2001

Surveillance Summaries

Painter JE, Gargano JW, Collier SA, Yoder JS. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2011-2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(SS03):15-25.
Yoder, JS, Gargano, JW, Wallace RM, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2009–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61(SS05):13-23.
Yoder JS, Harral C, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2006-2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59(6):15-25.
Yoder JS, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 2003-2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2007; 56(SS07);11-18.
Hlavsa MC, Watson JC, Beach MJ. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 1998-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005; 54(SS01);9-16.
Furness BW, Beach MJ, Roberts, JM. Giardiasis surveillance — United States, 1992-1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000; 49(SS07);1-13.

Sources of Infection & Risk Factors

Botero-Garces JH, Garcia-Montoya GM, Grisales-Patino D, Aguirre-Acevedo DC, Alvarez-Uribe MC. Giardia intestinalis and nutritional status in children participating in the complementary nutrition program, Antioquia, Colombia, May to October 2006. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2009;51(3):155-62.
Danciger M, Lopez M. Numbers of Giardia in the feces of infected children. Am J Trop Med Hyg.1975;24(2):237-42.
Rendtorff RC. The experimental transmission of human intestinal protozoan parasites. II. Giardia lamblia cysts given in capsules.[PDF - 12 pages] Am J Hyg. 1954;59(2):209-20.
Stuart JM, Orr HJ, Warburton FG, Jeyakanth S, Pugh C, Morris I, Sarangi J, Nichols G. Risk factors for sporadic giardiasis: a case-control study in southwestern England. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003;9(2):229-33.
Hoque ME, Hope VT, Scragg R, Kjellstrom T, Lay-Yee R. Nappy handling and risk of giardiasis. Lancet. 2001;357(9261):1017-18.
Pakianathan MR, McMillan A. Intestinal protozoa in homosexual men in Edinburgh. Int J STD AIDS. 1999;10(12):780-4.
Newman RD, Moore SR, Lima AA, Nataro JP, Guerrant RL, Sears CL. A longitudinal study of Giardia lamblia infection in north-east Brazilian children. Trop Med Int Health. 2001;6(8):624-34.
Esfandiari A, Swartz J, Teklehaimanot S. Clustering of giardiosis among AIDS patients in Los Angeles County. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 1997;43(7):1077-83.
Welch TP. Risk of giardiasis from consumption of wilderness water in North America: a systematic review of epidemiologic data. Int J Infect Dis. 2000;4(2):100-3.
Naumova EN, Jagai JS, Matyas B, DeMaria A, Jr., MacNeill IB, Griffiths JK. Seasonality in six enterically transmitted diseases and ambient temperature. Epidemiol Infect. 2007;135(2):281-92.
Birkhead G, Vogt RL. Epidemiologic surveillance for endemic Giardia lamblia infection in Vermont. The roles of waterborne and person-to-person transmission. 1989;129(4):762-8.
Kappus KD, Lundgren RG, Jr., Juranek DD, Roberts JM, Spencer HC. Intestinal parasitism in the United States: update on a continuing problem.Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;50(6):705-13.
Greig JD, Michel P, Wilson JB, Lammerding AM, Majowicz SE, Stratton J, Aramini JJ, Meyers RK, Middleton D, McEwen SA. A descriptive analysis of giardiasis cases reported in Ontario, 1990-1998. Can J Public Health. 2001;92(5):361-5.
Naumova EN, Chen JT, Griffiths JK, Matyas BT, Estes-Smargiassi SA, Morris RD. Use of passive surveillance data to study temporal and spatial variation in the incidence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Public Health Rep. 2000;115(5):436-47.

Illness & Symptoms

Robertson LJ, Hanevik K, Escobedo AA, Morch K, Langeland N. Giardiasis--why do the symptoms sometimes never stop? Trends Parasitol. 2010;26(2):75-82.
Nash TE, Herrington DA, Losonsky GA, Levine MM. Experimental human infections with Giardia lamblia. J Infect Dis. 1987;156(6):974-84.

Diagnosis & Detection

Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Procedures for the recovery and identification of parasites from the intestinal tract; approved guideline. CLSI document M28-A2. 2nd ed. Wayne, PA: Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute; 2005.
Johnston SP, Ballard MM, Beach MJ, Causer L, Wilkins PP. Evaluation of three commercial assays for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium organisms in fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(2):623-6.
Garcia LS, Shimizu RY, Novak S, Carroll M, Chan F. Commercial assay for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum antigens in human fecal specimens by rapid solid-phase qualitative immunochromatography. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:209–212.

Treatment

Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Genkinger JM, Loffredo CA, Singer SM. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of albendazole compared with metronidazole as treatments for infections with Giardia duodenalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010;4(5):e682.
Drugs for Parasitic Infections: The Medical Letter; 2010.
Muller J, Ley S, Felger I, Hemphill A, Muller N. Identification of differentially expressed genes in a Giardia lamblia WB C6 clone resistant to nitazoxanide and metronidazole. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62(1):72-82.
Escobedo AA, Cimerman S. Giardiasis: a pharmacotherapy review. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2007;8(12):1885-1902.
Upcroft JA, Upcroft P. Drug resistance and Giardia. Parasitol Today. 1993;9(5):187-90.
Sullivan PB, Marsh MN, Phillips MB, Dewit O, Neale G, Cevallos AM, Yamson P, Farthing MJ. Prevalence and treatment of giardiasis in chronic diarrhoea and malnutrition. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66(3):304-6.
Gardner TB, Hill DR. Treatment of giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14(1):114-28.

Complications

Berkman DS, Lescano AG, Gilman RH, Lopez SL, Black MM. Effects of stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late childhood: a follow-up study. Lancet. 2002;359(9306):564-71.
Notis WM. Giardiasis and vitamin B 12 malabsorption. Gastroenterology. 1972;63(6):1085.
Solomons NW. Giardiasis: nutritional implications. Rev Infect Dis. 1982;4(4):859-69.
Tupchong M, Simor A, Dewar C. Beaver fever--a rare cause of reactive arthritis. J Rheumatol. 2001;28(3):683.
Farthing MJ, Mata L, Urrutia JJ, Kronmal RA. Natural history of Giardia infection of infants and children in rural Guatemala and its impact on physical growth. Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;43(3):395-405.

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Page last reviewed: July 21, 2015
Page last updated: July 21, 2015
Content source:
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID)
  Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases (DFWED)