Vaccine therapy

Vaccine therapy is a type of treatment that uses a substance or group of substances to stimulate the immune system to destroy a tumor or infectious microorganisms such as bacteria or viruses.

Cancer vaccines

Cancer is a group of fatal diseases that involves abnormal cell growth that can invade or spread to other parts of the body[1]. They are usually caused by the accumulation of mutations in genes that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Majority of cancer, about 90-95%, are due to genetic mutations from environmental and lifestyle factors – including age, chemicals, diet, exercise, viruses, and radiation. The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics[2]. Some of the cancers may be difficult to treat by conventional means such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, but may be controlled by the stimulation of the immune response of the body with the help of cancer vaccines.

  1. Preventive or prophylactic vaccines
  2. Treatment or therapeutic vaccines

These vaccines are intended to treat existing cancer by stimulating the patient’s immune system[3].

Cancer vaccines can also divided into specific or universal cancer vaccine based on the types of cancer it is used for. Specific cancer vaccines are only used to treat a particular type of cancer while universal vaccine can be used to treat different types of cancer[4].

Protein/peptide-based vaccines
  • Tumor-associated antigens

Vaccines of this kind use specific tumor antigens, which are usually proteins or peptides, to stimulate immune system against either tumor specific antigens (TSAs) or tumor associated antigens (TAAs). This vaccine helps stimulate the patient's immune system to increase production of antibodies or killer T cells[5].

Dendritic cell vaccines

Dendritic cells (DCs) are considered the most potent APC (antigen presenting cell) of the immune system. DC cells have a unique ability to stimulate naïve T cells and can be used to induce of antigen-specific immune response. Several DC-based cancer vaccines have been developed including DC loaded with, tumor peptides or whole proteins,[6] with tumor-derived mRNA or DNA.[7], DC transduced with viral vectors such as retroviruses[8], lentiviruses[9] adenoviruses,[10] fowl pox[11] and alphaviruses containing the tumor antigen or gene of interest, whole necrotic or apoptotic tumor cells[12], tumor cell lysates[13] and DC-fused with tumor cells[14].

Whole tumor cell vaccines

An advantage to using tumor cell vaccines is that this type of vaccine is polyepitope, which means it can present an entire spectrum of TAAs to a patient’s immune system.

  • Autologous tumor cell vaccines

These vaccines are made from antigens taken from the patient’s own cancer cells. Autologous vaccines have been used to treat lung cancer,[15] colorectal cancer[16], melanoma[17], renal cell cancer[18], and prostate cancer.[19]

  • Allogenic tumor cell vaccines

These vaccines are made from antigens taken from individuals other than the patient, usually from cancer cell lines[5].

References
  1. "What Is Cancer?". National Cancer Institute. 2007-09-17. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
  2. Anand P, Kunnumakkara AB, Kunnumakara AB, Sundaram C, Harikumar KB, Tharakan ST, Lai OS, Sung B, Aggarwal BB (September 2008). "Cancer is a preventable disease that requires major lifestyle changes". Pharmaceutical Research. 25 (9): 2097–116. doi:10.1007/s11095-008-9661-9. PMC 2515569. PMID 18626751.
  3. Lollini PL, Cavallo F, Nanni P, Forni G (March 2006). "Vaccines for tumour prevention". Nature Reviews. Cancer. 6 (3): 204–16. doi:10.1038/nrc1815. PMID 16498443.
  4. Evans WK, Shepherd FA, Feld R, Osoba D, Dang P, Deboer G (November 1985). "VP-16 and cisplatin as first-line therapy for small-cell lung cancer". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 3 (11): 1471–7. doi:10.1016/s0169-5002(86)80104-0. PMID 2997406.
  5. Guo C, Manjili MH, Subjeck JR, Sarkar D, Fisher PB, Wang XY (2013). "Therapeutic cancer vaccines: past, present, and future". Advances in Cancer Research. 119: 421–75. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-407190-2.00007-1. PMC 3721379. PMID 23870514.
  6. Li Y, Bendandi M, Deng Y, Dunbar C, Munshi N, Jagannath S, Kwak LW, Lyerly HK (October 2000). "Tumor-specific recognition of human myeloma cells by idiotype-induced CD8(+) T cells". Blood. 96 (8): 2828–33. PMID 11023518.
  7. Van Tendeloo VF, Ponsaerts P, Lardon F, Nijs G, Lenjou M, Van Broeckhoven C, Van Bockstaele DR, Berneman ZN (July 2001). "Highly efficient gene delivery by mRNA electroporation in human hematopoietic cells: superiority to lipofection and passive pulsing of mRNA and to electroporation of plasmid cDNA for tumor antigen loading of dendritic cells". Blood. 98 (1): 49–56. doi:10.1182/blood.v98.1.49. PMID 11418462.
  8. Ardeshna KM, Pizzey AR, Thomas NS, Orr S, Linch DC, Devereux S (March 2000). "Monocyte-derived dendritic cells do not proliferate and are not susceptible to retroviral transduction". British Journal of Haematology. 108 (4): 817–24. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2141.2000.01956.x. PMID 10792288.
  9. He Y, Zhang J, Mi Z, Robbins P, Falo LD (March 2005). "Immunization with lentiviral vector-transduced dendritic cells induces strong and long-lasting T cell responses and therapeutic immunity". Journal of Immunology. 174 (6): 3808–17. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.6.3808. PMID 15749922.
  10. Di Nicola M, Carlo-Stella C, Milanesi M, Magni M, Longoni P, Mortarini R, Anichini A, Tomanin R, Scarpa M, Gianni AM (October 2000). "Large-scale feasibility of gene transduction into human CD34+ cell-derived dendritic cells by adenoviral/polycation complex". British Journal of Haematology. 111 (1): 344–50. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2000.02258.x. PMID 11091223.
  11. Kim CJ, Cormier J, Roden M, Gritz L, Mazzara GP, Fetsch P, Hijazi Y, Lee KH, Rosenberg SA, Marincola FM (January 1998). "Use of recombinant poxviruses to stimulate anti-melanoma T cell reactivity". Annals of Surgical Oncology. 5 (1): 64–76. doi:10.1007/bf02303766. PMID 9524710.
  12. Chen Z, Moyana T, Saxena A, Warrington R, Jia Z, Xiang J (August 2001). "Efficient antitumor immunity derived from maturation of dendritic cells that had phagocytosed apoptotic/necrotic tumor cells". International Journal of Cancer. 93 (4): 539–48. doi:10.1002/ijc.1365. PMID 11477558.
  13. Ferlazzo G, Semino C, Spaggiari GM, Meta M, Mingari MC, Melioli G (December 2000). "Dendritic cells efficiently cross-prime HLA class I-restricted cytolytic T lymphocytes when pulsed with both apoptotic and necrotic cells but not with soluble cell-derived lysates". International Immunology. 12 (12): 1741–7. doi:10.1093/intimm/12.12.1741. PMID 11099314.
  14. Avigan D, Rosenblatt J, Kufe D (June 2012). "Dendritic/tumor fusion cells as cancer vaccines". Seminars in Oncology. 39 (3): 287–95. doi:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2012.02.003. PMID 22595051.
  15. Nemunaitis J, Nemunaitis J (November 2003). "Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene-transfected autologous tumor cell vaccine: focus[correction to fcous] on non-small-cell lung cancer". Clinical Lung Cancer. 5 (3): 148–57. doi:10.3816/clc.2003.n.027. PMID 14667270.
  16. de Weger VA, Turksma AW, Voorham QJ, Euler Z, Bril H, van den Eertwegh AJ, Bloemena E, Pinedo HM, Vermorken JB, van Tinteren H, Meijer GA, Hooijberg E (February 2012). "Clinical effects of adjuvant active specific immunotherapy differ between patients with microsatellite-stable and microsatellite-instable colon cancer". Clinical Cancer Research. 18 (3): 882–9. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-11-1716. PMID 22156611.
  17. Méndez R, Ruiz-Cabello F, Rodríguez T, Del Campo A, Paschen A, Schadendorf D, Garrido F (January 2007). "Identification of different tumor escape mechanisms in several metastases from a melanoma patient undergoing immunotherapy". Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy. 56 (1): 88–94. doi:10.1007/s00262-006-0166-2. PMID 16622680.
  18. Fishman M, Hunter TB, Soliman H, Thompson P, Dunn M, Smilee R, Farmelo MJ, Noyes DR, Mahany JJ, Lee JH, Cantor A, Messina J, Seigne J, Pow-Sang J, Janssen W, Antonia SJ (January 2008). "Phase II trial of B7-1 (CD-86) transduced, cultured autologous tumor cell vaccine plus subcutaneous interleukin-2 for treatment of stage IV renal cell carcinoma". Journal of Immunotherapy. 31 (1): 72–80. doi:10.1097/cji.0b013e31815ba792. PMID 18157014.
  19. Berger M, Horst JL, Kreutz F, Pimentel M, Müller RL, Koff WJ (April 2006). "Phase I Study With an Immunomodulated Autologous Cell Vaccine for Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer". European Urology Supplements. 5 (2): 96. doi:10.1016/s1569-9056(06)60300-x.

 This article incorporates public domain material from the U.S. National Cancer Institute document "Dictionary of Cancer Terms".

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