Ribavirin

Ribavirin, also known as tribavirin, is an antiviral medication used to treat RSV infection, hepatitis C and some viral hemorrhagic fevers.[1] For hepatitis C, it is used in combination with other medications such as simeprevir, sofosbuvir, peginterferon alfa-2b or peginterferon alfa-2a.[1] Among the viral hemorrhagic fevers it is used for Lassa fever, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever, and Hantavirus infection but should not be used for Ebola or Marburg infections.[1] Ribavirin is taken by mouth or inhaled.[1]

"Tribavirin" redirects here. It is not to be confused with taribavirin.
Ribavirin
Clinical data
Pronunciation/ˌraɪbəˈvaɪrɪn/ RY-bə-VY-rin
Trade namesCopegus, Rebetol, Virazole, other[1]
Other names1-(β-D-Ribofuranosyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide, tribavirin (BAN UK)
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa605018
License data
Pregnancy
category
  • AU: X (High risk)
  • US: X (Contraindicated) [1]
    Routes of
    administration    		by mouth, solution for inhalation
    ATC code
    Legal status
    Legal status
    Pharmacokinetic data
    Bioavailability64%[2]
    Protein binding0%[2]
    Metabolismliver and intracellularly[2]
    Elimination half-life298 hours (multiple dose); 43.6 hours (single dose)[2]
    ExcretionUrine (61%), faeces (12%)[2]
    Identifiers
    CAS Number
    PubChem CID
    IUPHAR/BPS
    DrugBank
    ChemSpider
    UNII
    KEGG
    ChEMBL
    NIAID ChemDB
    PDB ligand
    CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
    ECHA InfoCard100.164.587
    Chemical and physical data
    FormulaC8H12N4O5
    Molar mass244.206 g/mol g·mol−1
    3D model (JSmol)
    Melting point166 to 168 °C (331 to 334 °F)
      (verify)

    Common side effects include feeling tired, headache, nausea, fever, muscle pains, and an irritable mood.[1] Serious side effects include red blood cell breakdown, liver problems, and allergic reactions.[1] Use during pregnancy results in harm to the baby.[1] Effective birth control is recommended for both males and females for at least 7 months during and after use.[3] The mechanism of action of ribavirin is not entirely clear.[1]

    Ribavirin was patented in 1971 and approved for medical use in 1986.[4] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.[5] It is available as a generic medication.[1] In the United States a course of treatment costs more than $USD 200.[6]

    Medical uses

    Ribavirin is used primarily to treat hepatitis C and viral hemorrhagic fevers (which is an orphan indication in most countries).[7] In this former indication the oral (capsule or tablet) form of ribavirin is used in combination with pegylated interferon alfa.[8][9][10][11] Including in people coinfected with hepatitis B, HIV and in the pediatric population.[10][12][13] Statins may improve this combination's efficacy in treating hepatitis C.[14] Ribavirin is the only known treatment for a variety of viral hemorrhagic fevers, including Lassa fever, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever, and Hantavirus infection, although data regarding these infections are scarce and the drug might be effective only in early stages.[15][16][17][18] It is noted by the USAMRIID that "Ribavirin has poor in vitro and in vivo activity against the filoviruses (Ebola[19] and Marburg) and the flaviviruses (dengue, yellow fever, Omsk hemorrhagic fever, and Kyasanur forest disease)"[20] The aerosol form has been used in the past to treat respiratory syncytial virus-related diseases in children, although the evidence to support this is rather weak.[21]

    It has been used (in combination with ketamine, midazolam, and amantadine) in treatment of rabies.[22]

    Experimental data indicate that ribavirin may have useful activity against canine distemper and poxviruses.[23][24] Ribavirin has also been used as a treatment for herpes simplex virus. One small study found that ribavirin treatment reduced the severity of herpes outbreaks and promoted recovery, as compared with placebo treatment.[25] Another study found that ribavirin potentiated the antiviral effect of acyclovir.[26]

    Some interest has been seen in its possible use as a treatment for cancers, especially acute myeloid leukemia.[27][28]

    Adverse effects

    The medication has two FDA "black box" warnings: One raises concerns that use before or during pregnancy by either sex may result in birth defects in the baby, and the other is regarding the risk of red blood cell breakdown.[29]

    Ribavirin should not be given with zidovudine because of the increased risk of anemia;[30] concurrent use with didanosine should likewise be avoided because of an increased risk of mitochondrial toxicity.[31]

    Mechanisms of action

    It is a guanosine (ribonucleic) analog used to stop viral RNA synthesis and viral mRNA capping, thus, it is a nucleoside inhibitor. Ribavirin is a prodrug, which when metabolized resembles purine RNA nucleotides. In this form, it interferes with RNA metabolism required for viral replication. Over five direct and indirect mechanisms have been proposed for its mechanism of action.[32]

    RNA viruses

    Ribavirin's carboxamide group can make the native nucleoside drug resemble adenosine or guanosine, depending on its rotation. For this reason, when ribavirin is incorporated into RNA, as a base analog of either adenine or guanine, it pairs equally well with either uracil or cytosine, inducing mutations in RNA-dependent replication in RNA viruses. Such hypermutation can be lethal to RNA viruses.[33][34]

    DNA viruses

    Neither of these mechanisms explains ribavirin's effect on many DNA viruses, which is more of a mystery, especially given the complete inactivity of ribavirin's 2' deoxyribose analogue, which suggests that the drug functions only as an RNA nucleoside mimic, and never a DNA nucleoside mimic. Ribavirin 5'-monophosphate inhibits cellular inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, thereby depleting intracellular pools of GTP.[35] [ERROR: the cited paper refers only to an RNA virus and so does not support this section's assertion. A reference to a DNA virus is needed here.]

    History

    Ribavirin was first made in 1972.[36] This was done by researchers from International Chemical and Nuclear Corporation including Joseph T. Witkovski and Roland K. Robins.[37]

    It was reported that ribavirin was active against a variety of RNA and DNA viruses in culture and in animals, without undue toxicity.[38]

    Names

    Ribavirin is the INN and USAN, whereas tribavirin is the BAN. Brand names of generic forms include Copegus, Ribasphere, Rebetol.[1]

    Derivatives

    Ribavirin is possibly best viewed as a ribosyl purine analogue with an incomplete purine 6-membered ring. This structural resemblance historically prompted replacement of the 2' nitrogen of the triazole with a carbon (which becomes the 5' carbon in an imidazole), in an attempt to partly "fill out" the second ring--- but to no great effect. Such 5' imidazole riboside derivatives show antiviral activity with 5' hydrogen or halide, but the larger the substituent, the smaller the activity, and all proved less active than ribavirin.[39] Note that two natural products were already known with this imidazole riboside structure: substitution at the 5' carbon with OH results in pyrazomycin/pyrazofurin, an antibiotic with antiviral properties but unacceptable toxicity, and replacement with an amino group results in the natural purine synthetic precursor 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribofuranoside (AICAR), which has only modest antiviral properties.

    Taribavirin
    Main article: Taribavirin

    The most successful ribavirin derivative to date is the 3-carboxamidine derivative of the parent 3-carboxamide, first reported in 1973 by J. T. Witkowski et al.,[40] and now called taribavirin (former names viramidine and ribamidine). This drug shows a similar spectrum of antiviral activity to ribavirin, which is not surprising as it is now known to be a pro-drug for ribavirin. Taribavirin, however, has useful properties of less erythrocyte-trapping and better liver-targeting than ribavirin. The first property is due to taribavirin's basic amidine group which inhibits drug entry into RBCs, and the second property is probably due to increased concentration of the enzymes which convert amidine to amide in liver tissue.[41] Taribavirin was in phase III human trials.

    See also

    References
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    2. "PRODUCT INFORMATION REBETOL® (RIBAVIRIN) CAPSULES" (PDF). TGA eBusiness Services. Merck Sharp & Dohme (Australia) Pty Limited. 29 April 2013. Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
    3. WHO Model Formulary 2008 (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009. p. 177. ISBN 9789241547659. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
    4. Fischer, Janos; Ganellin, C. Robin (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 504. ISBN 9783527607495. Archived from the original on 2016-12-20.
    5. "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
    6. Hamilton, Richart (2015). Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia 2015 Deluxe Lab-Coat Edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 79. ISBN 9781284057560.
    7. "Rebetol, Ribasphere (ribavirin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more". Medscape Reference. WebMD. Archived from the original on 28 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
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    9. Flori N, Funakoshi N, Duny Y, Valats JC, Bismuth M, Christophorou D, Daurès JP, Blanc P (March 2013). "Pegylated interferon-α2a and ribavirin versus pegylated interferon-α2b and ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C : a meta-analysis". Drugs. 73 (3): 263–77. doi:10.1007/s40265-013-0027-1. PMID 23436591.
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