Internet addiction disorder

Internet addiction disorder (IAD) also known as problematic internet use or pathological internet use is generally defined as problematic, compulsive use of the internet, that results in significant impairment in an individual's function in various life domains over a prolonged period of time. This and other relationships between digital media use and mental health have been under considerable research, debate and discussion amongst experts in several disciplines, and have generated controversy from the medical, scientific and technological communities. Such disorders can be diagnosed when an individual engages in online activities at the cost of fulfilling daily responsibilities or pursuing other interests, and without regard for the negative consequences.

Internet addiction disorder
An old flyer for an internet addiction support group in New York City.
Specialty

Excessive Internet use has not been recognised as a disorder by the World Health Organization or the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5); however, the related diagnosis of gaming disorder has been included in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). Controversy around the diagnosis includes whether the disorder is a separate clinical entity, or a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. Research has approached the question from a variety of viewpoints, with no universally standardised or agreed definitions, leading to difficulties in developing evidence based recommendations.

As adolescents (12–19 years) and emerging adults (20–29 years) access the Internet more than any other age groups and undertake a higher risk of overuse of the Internet, the problem of Internet addiction disorder is most relevant to young people.[1]

Signs and symptoms

Mental health consequences

A longitudinal study of Chinese high school students (2010) suggests that individuals with moderate to severe risk of Internet addiction are 2.5 times more likely to develop depressive symptoms than their IAD-free counterparts.[2]

Social consequences

The best-documented evidence of Internet addiction so far is time-disruption, which subsequently results in interference with regular social life, including academic, professional performance and daily routines.[3] Some studies also reveal that IAD can lead to disruption of social relationships in Europe and Taiwan.[4][5] It is, however, also noted by others that IAD is beneficial for peer relations in Taiwan.[6]

Dr. Keith W. Beard (2005) states that "an individual is addicted when an individual’s psychological state, which includes both mental and emotional states, as well as their scholastic, occupational and social interactions, is impaired by the overuse of [Internet]".[7]

As a result of its complex nature, some scholars do not provide a definition of Internet addiction disorder and throughout time, different terms are used to describe the same phenomenon of excessive Internet use.[8] Internet addiction disorder is used interchangeably with problematic Internet use, pathological Internet use, and Internet addictive disorder. In some cases, this behavior is also referred to as Internet overuse, problematic computer use, compulsive Internet use, Internet abuse, harmful use of the Internet, and Internet dependency.

Physical symptoms

Physical symptoms include a weakened immune system due to lack of sleep, loss of exercise, and increased the risk for carpel tunnel syndrome and eye and back strain.[9]

Symptoms of withdrawal might include agitation, depression, anger and anxiety when the person is away from technology. These psychological symptoms might even turn into physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, tense shoulders and shortness of breath.[9]

People using their smartphones.

Online gambling addiction

According to David Hodgins, a professor of psychology at the University of Calgary, online gambling is considered to be as serious as pathological gambling. It is known as an "isolated disorder" which means that those who have a gambling problem prefer to separate themselves from interruptions and distractions. Because gambling is available online, it increases the opportunity for problem gamblers to indulge in gambling without social influences swaying their decisions. This is why this disorder has become more a problem at this date in time and is why it is so difficult to overcome. The opportunity to gamble online is almost always available in this century opposed to only having the opportunity in a public forum at casinos for example. Online gambling has become quite popular especially with today's adolescents. Today's youth has a greater knowledge of modern software and search engines along with a greater need for extra money. So not only is it easier for them to find opportunities to gamble over any subject, but the incentive to be granted this money is desperately desired.

Online gaming addiction (Internet gaming disorder)

Video game addiction is a known issue around the world. Incidence and severity grew in the 2000s, with the advent of broadband technology, games allowing for the creation of avatars, 'second life' games, and MMORPGs (massive multiplayer online role playing games). World of Warcraft has the largest MMORPG community online and there have been a number of studies about the addictive qualities of the game. Addicts of the game range from children to mature adults. A well-known example is Ryan van Cleave, a university professor whose life declined as he became involved in online gaming.[10] Andrew Doan, MD, PhD, a physician with a research background in neuroscience, battled his own addictions with video games, investing over 20,000 hours of playing games over a period of nine years.[11]

Online gaming addiction may be considered in terms of B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, which claims that the frequency of a given behavior is directly linked to rewarding and punishment of that behavior. If a behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to be repeated. If it is punished, it becomes suppressed.[12]

Orzack, a clinical psychologist at McLean Hospital in Massachusetts claims that 40 percent of World of Warcraft (WoW) players are addicted. Orzack says that the best way to optimize the desired behavior in the subject is to provide rewards for correct behavior, and then adjust the number of times the subject is required to exhibit that behavior before a reward is provided. For instance, if a rat must press a bar to receive food, then it will press faster and more often if it does not know how many times it needs to press the bar. An equivalent in World of Warcraft would be purple (epic) loot drops.[13] Players in World of Warcraft will often spend weeks hunting for a special item which is based on a chance system, sometimes with only a 0.01% chance of it being dropped by a slain monster. The rarity of the item and difficulty of acquiring the item gives the player a status amongst their peers once they obtain the item.

Online Gamers Anonymous, an American non-profit organization formed in 2002, is a twelve-step, self-help, support and recovery organization for gamers and their loved ones who are suffering from the adverse effects of addictive computer gaming. It offers resources such as discussion forums, online chat meetings, Skype meetings and links to other resources.[14] Internet and Technology Addicts Anonymous (ITAA) founded in 2009, is a 12-step program supporting users coping with digital distractions.

Jim Rossignol, a finance journalist who reports on Internet gaming has described how he overcame his own addiction and channeled his compulsion into a desirable direction as a reporter of Internet gaming and gaming culture.[15]

Communication addiction disorder (compulsive talking)

Communication addiction disorder (CAD) is a supposed behavioral disorder related to the necessity of being in constant communication with other people, even when there is no practical necessity for such communication. CAD has been linked to Internet addiction.[16] Users become addicted to the social elements of the Internet, such as Facebook and YouTube. Users become addicted to one-on-one or group communication in the form of social support, relationships, and entertainment. However, interference with these activities can result in conflict and guilt. This kind of addiction is called problematic social media use.

Social network addiction is a dependence of people by connection, updating, and control of their and their friend's social network page.[17] For some people, in fact, the only important thing is to have a lot of friends in the network regardless if they are offline or only virtual; this is particularly true for teenagers as a reinforcement of egos.[18][19] Sometimes teenagers use social networks to show their idealized image to the others.[20] However, other studies claim that people are using social networks to communicate their real personality and not to promote their idealized identity.[21]

Virtual reality addiction

Virtual reality addiction is an addiction to the use of virtual reality or virtual, immersive environments. Currently, interactive virtual media (such as social networks) are referred to as virtual reality,[22] whereas future virtual reality refers to computer-simulated, immersive environments or worlds. Experts warn about the dangers of virtual reality, and compare the use of virtual reality (both in its current and future form) to the use of drugs, bringing with these comparisons the concern that, like drugs, users could possibly become addicted to virtual reality.

Risk factors

Interpersonal difficulties

It is argued that interpersonal difficulties such as introversion, social problems,[23] and poor face-to-face communication skills,[24] often lead to internet addiction. Internet-based relationships offer a safe alternative for people with aforementioned difficulties to escape from the potential rejections and anxieties of interpersonal real-life contact.[25]

Social support

Individuals who lack sufficient social connection and social support are found to run a higher risk of Internet addiction. They resort to virtual relationships and support to alleviate their loneliness.[26][27] As a matter of fact, the most prevalent applications among Internet addicts are chat rooms, interactive games, instant messaging, or social media.[25] Some empirical studies reveal that conflict between parents and children and not living with mother significantly associated with IA after one year.[28] Protective factors such as quality communication between parents and children[29] and positive youth development[30] are demonstrated, in turn, to reduce the risk of IA.

Psychological factors

Prior addictive or psychiatric history are found to influence the likelihood of being addicted to the Internet.[28][31] Some individuals with prior psychiatric problems such as depression and anxiety turn to compulsive behaviors to avoid the unpleasant emotions and situation of their psychiatric problems and regard being addicted to the Internet a safer alternative to substance addictive tendency. But it is generally unclear from existing research which is the cause and which is the effect partially due to the fact that comorbidity is common among Internet addicts.

The most common co-morbidities that have been linked to IAD are major depression and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The rate of ADHD and IAD associating is as high as 51.6%.[32]

Internet addicts with no previous significant addictive or psychiatric history are argued to develop an addiction to some of the features of Internet use: anonymity, easy accessibility, and its interactive nature.[25]

Other factors

Parental educational level, age at first use of the Internet, and the frequency of using social networking sites and gaming sites are found to be positively associated with excessive Internet use among adolescents in some European countries, as well as in the USA.[4][33]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of Internet addiction disorder is empirically difficult. Various screening instruments have been employed to detect Internet addiction disorder. Current diagnoses are faced with multiple obstacles.

Difficulties

Given the newness of the Internet and the inconsistent definition of Internet addiction disorder, practical diagnosis is far from clearcut. With the first research initiated by Kimberly S. Young in 1996, the scientific study of Internet addiction has merely existed for 20 years.[34] A few obstacles are present in creating an applicable diagnostic method for Internet addiction disorder.

  • Wide and extensive use of the Internet: Diagnosing Internet addiction is often more complex than substance addiction as internet use has largely evolved into be an integral or necessary part of human lives. The addictive or problematic use of the internet is thus easily masked or justified.[25] Also, the Internet is largely a pro-social, interactive, and information-driven medium, while other established addiction behaviors such as gambling are often seen as a single, antisocial behavior that has very little socially redeeming value. Many so-called Internet addicts do not suffer from the same damage to health and relationships that are common to established addictions.[35]
  • High comorbidity: Internet addiction is often accompanied by other psychiatric disorders such as personality disorder and mental retardation.[25][36][37][38][39] It is found that Internet addiction is accompanied by other DSM-IV diagnosis 86% of the time.[40] In one study conducted in South Korea, 30% of the identified Internet addicts have accompanying symptoms such as anxiety or depression and another 30% have a second disorder such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[41] Another study in South Korea found an average of 1.5 other diagnoses among adolescent internet addicts.[40] Further, it is noted in the United States that many patients only resort to medical help when experiencing difficulties they attribute to other disorders.[25][40] For many individuals, overuse or inappropriate use of the Internet is a manifestation of their depression, social anxiety disorders, impulse control disorders, or pathological gambling.[42] It generally remains unclear from existing literature whether other psychiatric disorders is the cause or manifest of Internet addiction.

Despite the advocacy of categorizing Internet addiction as an established illness,[40][43] neither DSM-IV (1995) nor DSM-5 (2013) considers Internet addiction as a mental disorder.[44] A subcategory of IAD, Internet gaming disorder is listed in DSM-5 as a condition that requires more research in order to be considered as a full disorder in May 2013.[44][45][46] The WHO's draft 11th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) scheduled for publication in 2018 also include gaming disorder.[47] There is still considerable controversy over whether IAD should be included in the DSM-5 and recognized as a mental disease in general.[48]

Screening instruments

DSM-based instruments

Most of the criteria utilized by research are adaptations of listed mental disorders (e.g., pathological gambling) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) handbook.[8]

Dr. Ivan K. Goldberg, who first broached the concept of Internet addiction, adopted a few criteria for IAD on the basis of DSM-IV, including “hoping to increase time on the network” and “dreaming about the network.”[8] By adapting the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, Dr. Kimberly S. Young (1998) proposed one of the first integrated sets of criteria, Diagnostic Questionnaire (YDQ), to detect Internet addiction. A person who fulfills any five of the eight adapted criteria would be regarded as Internet addicted:[49][50][51]

  1. Preoccupation with the Internet;
  2. A need for increased time spent online to achieve the same amount of satisfaction;
  3. Repeated efforts to curtail Internet use;
  4. Irritability, depression, or mood lability when Internet use is limited;
  5. Staying online longer than anticipated;
  6. Putting a job or relationship in jeopardy to use the Internet;
  7. Lying to others about how much time is spent online; and
  8. Using the Internet as a means of regulating mood.

While Young's YDQ assessment for IA has the advantage of simplicity and ease of use, Keith W. Beard and Eve M. Wolf (2001) further asserted that all of the first five (in the order above) and at least one of the final three criteria (in the order above) be met to delineate Internet addiction in order for a more appropriate and objective assessment.[52]

Young further extended her eight-question YDQ assessment to the now most widely used Internet Addiction Test (IAT),[49][53][54] which consists of 20 items with each on a five-point Likert scale. Questions included on the IAT expand upon Young's earlier eight-question assessment in greater detail and include questions such as "Do you become defensive or secretive when anyone asks you what you do online?" and "Do you find yourself anticipating when you go online again?". A complete list of questions can be found in Dr. Kimberly S. Young's 1998 book Caught in the Net: How to Recognize the Signs of Internet Addiction and A Winning Strategy for Recovery and Drs. Laura Widyanto and Mary McMurran's 2004 article titled The Psychometric Properties of the Internet Addiction Test. The Test score ranges from 20 to 100 and a higher value indicates a more problematic use of the Internet:

  • 20–39 = average Internet users,
  • 40–69 = potentially problematic Internet users, and
  • 70–100 = problematic Internet users.

Over time, a considerable number of screening instruments have been developed to diagnose Internet addiction, including the Internet Addiction Test (IAT),[49] the Internet-Related Addictive Behavior Inventory (IRABI),[55] the Chinese Internet Addiction Inventory (CIAI),[56] the Korean Internet Addiction Self-Assessment Scale (KS Scale),[57] the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS),[58] the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS),[59] the Internet Consequences Scale (ICONS),[60] and the Problematic Internet Use Scale (PIUS).[61] Among others, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) by Young (1998) exhibits good internal reliability and validity and has been used and validated worldwide as a screening instrument.[62][63][54]

Although the various screening methods are developed from diverse contexts, four dimensions manifest themselves across all instruments:[40][64]

  • Excessive use: compulsive Internet use and excessive online time-use;
  • Withdrawal symptoms: withdrawal symptoms including feelings such as depression and anger, given restricted Internet use;
  • Tolerance: the need for better equipment, increased internet use, and more applications/software;
  • Negative repercussions: Internet use caused negative consequences in various aspects, including problematic performance in social, academic, or work domains.

More recently, researchers Mark D. Griffiths (2000) and Dr. Jason C. Northrup and colleagues (2015) claim that Internet per se is simply the medium and that the people are in effect addicted to processes facilitated by the Internet.[64][65] Based on Young's Internet Addiction Test (IAT),[49] Northrup and associates further decompose the internet addiction measure into four addictive processes: Online video game playing, online social networking, online sexual activity, and web surfing.[64] The Internet Process Addiction Test (IPAT)[64] is created to measure the processes to which individuals are addicted.

Screening methods that heavily rely on DSM criteria have been accused of lacking consensus by some studies, finding that screening results generated from prior measures rooted in DSM criteria are inconsistent with each other.[5] As a consequence of studies being conducted in divergent contexts, studies constantly modify scales for their own purposes, thereby imposing a further challenge to the standardization in assessing Internet addiction disorder.[8]

Single-question instruments

Some scholars and practitioners also attempt to define Internet addiction by a single question, typically the time-use of the Internet.[41][66] The extent to which Internet use can cause negative health consequences is, however, not clear from such a measure.[8] The latter of which is critical to whether IAD should be defined as a mental disorder.

Classification

As many scholars have pointed out, the Internet serves merely as a medium through which tasks of divergent nature can be accomplished.[64][65] Treating disparate addictive behaviors under the same umbrella term is highly problematic.[67]

Dr. Kimberly S. Young (1999) asserts that Internet addiction is a broad term which can be decomposed into several subtypes of behavior and impulse control problems, namely,[68]

  • Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyberporn;
    • Main article: Internet sex addiction.
  • Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships;
  • Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading;
  • Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches;
  • Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing.

For a more detailed description of related disorders please refer to the related disorders section above.

Treatment

Current interventions and strategies used as treatments for Internet addiction stem from those practiced in substance abuse disorder. In the absence of "methodologically adequate research", treatment programs are not well corroborated.[69] Psychosocial treatment is the approach most often applied.[48] In practice, rehab centers usually devise a combination of multiple therapies.[56]

Psychosocial treatment

Cognitive behavioral therapy

The cognitive behavioral therapy with Internet addicts (CBT-IA) is developed in analogy to therapies for impulse control disorder.[25][70]

Several key aspects are embedded in this therapy:[71][72]

  • Learning time management strategies;
  • Recognizing the benefits and potential harms of the Internet;
  • Increasing self-awareness and awareness of others and one's surroundings;
  • Identifying "triggers" of Internet "binge behavior", such as particular Internet applications, emotional states, maladaptive cognitions, and life events;
  • Learning to manage emotions and control impulses related to accessing the Internet, such as muscles or breathing relaxation training;
  • Improving interpersonal communication and interaction skills;
  • Improving coping styles;
  • Cultivating interests in alternative activities.

Three phases are implemented in the CBT-IA therapy:[25][70]

  1. Behavior modification to control Internet use: Examine both computer behavior and non-computer behavior and manage Internet addicts' time online and offline;
  2. Cognitive restructuring to challenge and modify cognitive distortions: Identify, challenge, and modify the rationalizations that justify excessive Internet use;
  3. Harm reduction therapy to address co-morbid issues: Address any co-morbid factors associated with Internet addiction, sustain recovery, and prevent relapse.

Symptom management of CBT-IA treatment has been found to sustain six months post-treatment.[25]

Motivational interviewing

The motivational interviewing approach is developed based on therapies for alcohol abusers.[25][72] This therapy is a directive, patient-centered counseling style for eliciting behavior change through helping patients explore and resolve ambivalence with a respectful therapeutic manner. It does not, however, provide patients with solutions or problem solving until patients' decision to change behaviors.[71]

Several key elements are embedded in this therapy:[25]

  • Asking open-ended questions;
  • Giving affirmations;
  • Reflective listening

Other psychosocial treatment therapies include reality therapy, Naikan cognitive psychotherapy, group therapy, family therapy, and multimodal psychotherapy.[71]

Medication

IAD may be associated with a co-morbidity, so treating a related disorder may also help in the treatment of IAD. When addicts were treated with certain anti-depressants it reduced time online by 65% and also reduced cravings of being online. The anti-depressants that have been most successful are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as escitalopram and a heterocyclic atypical anti-depressant called bupropion. A psychostimulant, methylphenidate has also shown beneficial effects.[32]

Prevalence

Research-based prevalence rate of Internet addiction
Country or region Rate or population Sample Year Instrument
Global 6%[53] A meta-analysis-based estimate 1994–2012 YDQ & IAT
Asia
Asia 20%[73]
China 10.4%[74] 10,158 adolescents 2016 IAT
Hong Kong 17–26.7%[75] Over 3000 high school students 2009–2015 IAT
Taiwan 13.8%[76] 1708 high school students n.a. YDQ
South Korea 2.1%[40] An estimate based on Korean population aged 6–19 years 2006
Japan 2.0%[77] 853 adolescents aged 12–15 years 2014 IAT
Europe
Europe 4.4%[78] 11,956 adolescents in 11 European countries 2009–2010 YDQ
Germany 1.5 million[79] An estimate based on German population n.a.
Spain 16.3%[80] 40,955 school adolescents aged 12–17 years 2016 PIUS-a
Norway 0.7%[81] 3399 individuals aged 16–74 years 2007 YDQ
UK 18.3%[82] 371 college students n.a. PIUS
North America
USA 0.3–0.7%[83] 2513 adults 2004 Non-standard

Different samples, methodologies, and screening instruments are employed across studies.

Terminology

The notion of "Internet addictive disorder" was initially conjured up by Ivan K. Goldberg in 1995 as a joke to parody the complexity and rigidity of the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). In his first narration, Internet addictive disorder was described as having the symptoms of "important social or occupational activities that are given up or reduced because of Internet use", "fantasies or dreams about the Internet," and "voluntary or involuntary typing movements of the fingers."[84]

The definition of Internet addiction disorder has troubled researchers ever since its inception. In general, no standardized definition has been provided despite that the phenomenon has received extensive public and scholar recognition.[3][8] Below are some of the commonly used definitions.

In 1998, Jonathan J. Kandell defined Internet addiction as "a psychological dependence on the Internet, regardless of the type of activity once logged on."[85]

English psychologist Mark D. Griffiths (1998) conceived Internet addiction as a subtype of broader technology addiction, and also a subtype of behavioral addictions.[86]

Society

Internet and Technology Addicts Anonymous

Internet and Technology Addicts Anonymous (ITAA), founded in 2009, is a 12-step program supporting users coping with digital distractions such as computers and smartphones.[87] There are face to face meetings in some US cities. English-speaking telephone and online meetings take place over a conference line most days of the week, at varying times that allow people worldwide to attend. Like 12-step fellowships such as Overeaters Anonymous, Workaholics Anonymous, or Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous, most members find that they cannot choose to not use technology at all. ITAA members come up with their own definitions of abstinence or problem behaviors, such as not using the computer or internet at certain hours or locations or not going to certain websites or categories of websites that have proven problematic in the past. Meetings provide a source of live support for people who are trying to build connections with people outside the computer, to share struggles and victories, and to learn to better function in life once less of it is spent on problematic technology use.

NoSurf

The NoSurf Reddit community [88] maintains a list of resources and strategies helpful for people trying to decrease their internet usage. This includes lists of software programs that people use to control which sites they visit and when, as well as a discussion group that takes place on Discord.

Public concern

Internet addiction has raised great public concern in Asia and some countries consider Internet addiction as one of the major issues that threatens public health, in particular among adolescents.[40][71]

China

Internet addiction is commonly referred to as "electronic opium"[89] or "electronic heroin" in China.[90] The government of the People's Republic of China is the first country to formally classify Internet addiction a clinical disorder by recognizing Clinical Diagnostic Criteria for Internet Addiction in 2008.[91][92] The government has enacted several policies to regulate adolescents' Internet use, including limiting daily gaming time to 3 hours and requiring users' identification in online video games.[93]

South Korea

Being almost universally connected to the Internet and boasting online gaming as a professional sport, South Korea deems Internet addiction one of the most serious social issues[94] and describes it as a "national crisis".[95] Nearly 80% of the South Korean population have smartphones. According to government data, about two million of the country's population (less than 50 million) have Internet addiction problem, and approximately 68,000 10–19-year-old teenagers are addicted to the Internet, accounting for roughly 10% of the teenage population.[96] Even the very young generation are faced with the same problem: Approximately 40% of South Korean children between age three to five are using smartphones over three times per week. According to experts, if children are constantly stimulated by smartphones during infancy period, their brain will struggle to balance growth and the risk of Internet addiction.[97]

It is believed that due to Internet addiction, many tragic events have happened in South Korea: A mother, tired of playing online games, killed her three-year-old son. A couple, obsessed with online child-raising games, left their young daughter die of malnutrition. A 15-year-old teenager killed his mother for not letting himself play online games and then committed suicide.[98] One Internet gaming addict stabbed his sister after playing violent games. Another addict killed one and injured seven others.[95]

In response, the South Korea government has launched the first Internet prevention center in the world, the Jump Up Internet Rescue School, where the most severely addicted teens are treated with full governmental financial aid.[95] As of 2007, the government has built a network of 140 Internet-addiction counseling centers besides treatment programs at around 100 hospitals.[99] Typically, counselor- and instructor-led music therapy and equine therapy and other real-life group activities including military-style obstacle courses and therapeutic workshops on pottery and drumming are used to divert IAs' attention and interest from screens.[95][99]

In 2011, the Korean government introduced the "Shutdown law", also known as the "Cinderella Act", to prevent children under 16 years old from playing online games from midnight (12:00) to 6 a.m.[96]

Mistreatment in China

In the absence of guidance from China's Health Ministry and a clear definition of Internet addiction, dubious treatment clinics have sprouted up in the country.[41] As part of the treatment, some clinics and camps impose corporal punishment upon patients of Internet addiction and some conducted electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) against patients, the latter of which has caused wide public concern and controversy.[41][100] A few salient mistreatment practices have been well-documented by news reports:

One of the most commonly resorted treatments for Internet-addicted adolescents in China is inpatient care, either in a legal or illegal camp. It is reported that children were sent to "correction" against their will. Some are seized and tied by staff of the camp, some are drugged by their parents, and some are tricked into treatment.[92][101][102][103]

In many camps and clinics, corporal punishment is frequently used to "correct" Internet addiction disorder. The types of corporal punishment practiced include, but not limited to, kilometers-long hikes, intense squats, standing, starving, and confinement.[41][104][105][106] After a physical-abuse-caused death case of an adolescent Internet-addict was reported in 2009, the Chinese government has officially inhibited physical violence to "wean" teens from the Internet.[107] But multiple abuse and death cases of Internet addicts have been reported after the ban.

Among Internet addiction rehab centers that use corporal punishment in treatment, Yuzhang Academy in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, is the most heavily discussed. In 2017, the Academy was accused of using severe corporal punishment against students, the majority of which are Internet addicts. Former students claimed that the Academy hit problematic students with iron rulers, "whip them with finger-thick steel cables", and lock students in small cells week long.[108][109] Several suicidal cases emerged under the great pressure.[110]

In November 2017, the Academy stopped operating after extensive media exposure and police intervention.[111]

Electroconvulsive therapy

In China, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is legally used for schizophrenia and mood disorders. Its off-label practices in treating adolescent Internet addicts has raised great public concern and stigmatized the legal use of ECT.[112]

The most reported and controversial clinic treating Internet addiction disorder is perhaps the Linyi Psychiatric Hospital in Shandong Province.[41] Its center for Internet addiction treatment was established in 2006 by Yang Yongxin.[113] Various interviews of Yongxin Yang confirm that Yang has created a special therapy, xingnao ("brain-waking") therapy, to treat Internet addiction. As part of the therapy, electroconvulsive therapy is implemented with currents of 1–5 milliampere.[114] As Yang put it, the electroconvulsive therapy only involves sending a small current through the brain and will not harm the recipient.[115] As a psychiatric hospital, patients are deprived of personal liberty and are subject to electroconvulsive treatment at the will of hospital staffs.[100] And before admission, parents have to sign contracts in which they deliver their guardianship of kids partially to the hospital and acknowledge that their kids will receive ECT.[100] Frequently, ECT is employed as a punishment method upon patients who breaks any of the center's rules, including "eating chocolate, locking the bathroom door, taking pills before a meal and sitting on Yang's chair without permission".[100] It is reported in a CCTV-12 segment that a DX-IIA electroconvulsive therapy machine is utilized to correct Internet addiction. The machine was, later on, revealed to be illegal, inapplicable to minor[116][117] and can cause great pain and muscle spasm to recipients.[41] Many former patients in the hospital later on stood out and reported that the ECT they received in the hospital was extremely painful, tore up their head,[102] and even caused incontinence.[113][118] An Interview of the Internet addiction treatment center in Linyi Psychiatric Hospital is accessible via the following link.Since neither the safety nor the effectiveness of the method was clear, the Chinese Ministry of Health banned electroconvulsive therapy in treating Internet addiction disorder in 2009.[115][119]

Drug

In Yang's clinic, patients are forced to take psychiatric medication[101] in addition to Jiewangyin, a type of medication invented by himself. Neither the effectiveness nor applicability of the medication has been assessed, however.

Physical abuse and death

At clinics and rehab centers, at least 12 cases of physical abuse have been revealed by media in the recent years including seven deaths.[120][121]

In 2009, a 15-year-old, Senshan Deng, was found dead eight hours after being sent to an Internet-addiction center in Nanning, Guangxi Province. It is reported that the teenager was beaten by his trainers during his stay in the center.[92]

In 2009, another 14-year-old teenager, Liang Pu, was taken to hospital with water in the lungs and kidney failure after a similar attack in Sichuan Province.[107]

In 2014, a 19-year-old, Lingling Guo, died in an Internet-addiction center with multiple injuries on head and neck in Zhengzhou, Henan Province.[92]

In 2016, after escaping from an Internet addiction rehab center, a 16-year-old girl tied and starved her mother to death in revenge of the being sent to treatment in Heilongjiang Province.[92]

In August 2017, an 18-year-old boy, Li Ao, was found dead with 20 external scars and bruises two days after his parents sent him to a military-style boot camp in Fuyang city, Anhui Province.[122]

See also

References

  1. Anderson, E. L.; Steen, E.; Stavropoulos, V. (2017). "Internet use and Problematic Internet Use: A systematic review of longitudinal research trends in adolescence and emergent adulthood". International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. 22 (4): 430–454. doi:10.1080/02673843.2016.1227716.
  2. Lam, Lawrence T.; Peg, Zi-Wen (2010-10-04). "Effect of Pathological Use of the Internet on Adolescent Mental Health". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 164 (10): 901–6. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.159. ISSN 1072-4710. PMID 20679157.
  3. Chou, Chien; Condron, Linda; Belland, John C. (2005-12-01). "A Review of the Research on Internet Addiction". Educational Psychology Review. 17 (4): 363–388. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1. ISSN 1040-726X.
  4. Tsitsika, Artemis; Janikian, Mari; Schoenmakers, Tim M.; Tzavela, Eleni C.; Ólafsson, Kjartan; Wójcik, Szymon; Macarie, George Florian; Tzavara, Chara; Richardson, Clive (2014-05-22). "Internet Addictive Behavior in Adolescence: A Cross-Sectional Study in Seven European Countries". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 17 (8): 528–535. doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0382. ISSN 2152-2715. PMID 24853789.
  5. Chou, Chien; Hsiao, Ming-Chun (2000). "Internet addiction, usage, gratification, and pleasure experience: the Taiwan college students' case". Computers & Education. 35 (1): 65–80. doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(00)00019-1.
  6. Chin-Chung, Lin; Tsai, Sunny S. J. (1999). "Internet Addiction among High Schoolers in Taiwan". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. Beard, Keith W. (2005-02-01). "Internet Addiction: A Review of Current Assessment Techniques and Potential Assessment Questions". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 8 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.7. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 15738688.
  8. Byun, Sookeun; Ruffini, Celestino; Mills, Juline E.; Douglas, Alecia C.; Niang, Mamadou; Stepchenkova, Svetlana; Lee, Seul Ki; Loutfi, Jihad; Lee, Jung-Kook (2008-12-10). "Internet Addiction: Metasynthesis of 1996–2006 Quantitative Research". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 12 (2): 203–207. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0102. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 19072075.
  9. Rosen, Larry D., et al. "Social Networking Is Addictive and Can Lead to Psychological Disorders." Are Social Networking Sites Harmful?, edited by Noah Berlatsky, Greenhaven Press, 2015.
  10. Lush, Tamara (29 August 2011). "At war with World of Warcraft". The Guardian. London. Associated Press. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
  11. Andrew Doan; Brooke Strickland. "About". hooked-on-games.com.
  12. "The Virtual Skinner Box". Retrieved 2012-03-15.
  13. Reimer, Jeremy (August 2006). "Doctor claims 40 percent of World of Warcraft players are addicted". ARS Technica. Retrieved 2012-03-15.
  14. "Welcome to On-Line Gamers Anonymous®! | On-line Gamers Anonymous®". www.olganon.org.
  15. Rossignol, Jim (2009). The Gaming Life: Travels in Three Cities. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472033973.
  16. Walther, J.B. (1999) "Communication Addiction Disorder: Concern over media, behavior and effects [APA conference talk]".
  17. Echeburua E.; de Corral P. (2010). "Addiction to new technologies and to online social networking in young people: A new challenge". Adicciones. 22: 91–95.
  18. Hutson M. (2009). "Facebook Friends: Too Many, Too Few?" Retrieved 10 March 2012
  19. Buffardi, L. E.; Campbell, W. K. (2008). "Narcissism and Social Networking Web Sites". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 34 (10): 1303–14. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.464.5684. doi:10.1177/0146167208320061. PMID 18599659.
  20. Manago, Adriana M.; Graham, Michael B.; Greenfield, Patricia M.; Salimkhan, Goldie (2008). "Self-presentation and gender on My Space". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 29 (6): 446–458. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.07.001.
  21. Ambady N., Skowronski J. (2008). "First impressions". New York Guilford.
  22. William H. Davidow (31 Jul 2012). "Interactive technologies give us a quick fix, and that's not a good thing". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 29 Nov 2015.
  23. Ebeling-Witte, Susan; Frank, Michael L.; Lester, David (2007-10-01). "Shyness, Internet Use, and Personality". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 10 (5): 713–716. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.9964. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 17927542.
  24. Leung, Louis (2007-04-01). "Stressful Life Events, Motives for Internet Use, and Social Support Among Digital Kids". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 10 (2): 204–214. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9967. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 17474837.
  25. Young, Kimberly (2017). "The Evolution of Internet Addiction Disorder". Internet Addiction. Studies in Neuroscience, Psychology and Behavioral Economics. Springer, Cham. pp. 3–18. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46276-9_1. ISBN 9783319462752.
  26. Morahan-Martin, Janet (1999-10-01). "The Relationship Between Loneliness and Internet Use and Abuse". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 2 (5): 431–439. doi:10.1089/cpb.1999.2.431. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 19178216.
  27. "Excessive Internet Use: The Role of Personality, Loneliness and Social Supp...: Discovery Service for University of Chicago". eds.a.ebscohost.com. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
  28. Ko, Chih-Hung; Yen, Ju-Yu; Chen, Cheng-Sheng; Yeh, Yi-Chun; Yen, Cheng-Fang (2009-10-05). "Predictive Values of Psychiatric Symptoms for Internet Addiction in Adolescents". Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 163 (10): 937–43. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.159. ISSN 1072-4710. PMID 19805713.
  29. Eijnden, Regina J. J. M. van den; Spijkerman, Renske; Vermulst, Ad A.; Rooij, Tony J. van; Engels, Rutger C. M. E. (2010-01-01). "Compulsive Internet Use Among Adolescents: Bidirectional Parent–Child Relationships". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 38 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9347-8. ISSN 0091-0627. PMC 2809946. PMID 19728076.
  30. Yu, Lu; Shek, Daniel Tan Lei (2013). "Internet Addiction in Hong Kong Adolescents: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study". Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 26 (3): S10–S17. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2013.03.010. hdl:10397/8135. PMID 23683821.
  31. Cho, Sun-Mi; Sung, Min-Je; Shin, Kyoung-Min; Lim, Ki Young; Shin, Yun-Mi (2013-08-01). "Does Psychopathology in Childhood Predict Internet Addiction in Male Adolescents?". Child Psychiatry & Human Development. 44 (4): 549–555. doi:10.1007/s10578-012-0348-4. ISSN 0009-398X. PMID 23242708.
  32. Przepiorka, Aneta Małgorzata; Blachnio, Agata; Miziak, Barbara; Czuczwar, Stanisław Jerzy (April 2014). "Clinical approaches to treatment of Internet addiction". Pharmacological Reports. 66 (2): 187–191. doi:10.1016/j.pharep.2013.10.001. ISSN 1734-1140. PMID 24911068.
  33. Ramachandran, Shankar (2015-10-01). "Technology: Smart tablet or just a new drug? (Lessons for use of technology with children)". The Essayist.
  34. Brand, Matthias (2017). "Theoretical Models of the Development and Maintenance of Internet Addiction". Internet Addiction. Studies in Neuroscience, Psychology and Behavioral Economics. Springer, Cham. pp. 19–34. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46276-9_2. ISBN 9783319462752.
  35. Kershaw, Sarah (2005-12-01). "Hooked on the Web: Help Is on the Way". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
  36. Ko, Chih-Hung; Yen, Ju-Yu; Chen, Cheng-Sheng; Chen, Cheng-Chung; Yen, Cheng-Fang (February 2008). "Psychiatric Comorbidity of Internet Addiction in College Students: An Interview Study". CNS Spectrums. 13 (2): 147–153. doi:10.1017/S1092852900016308. ISSN 1092-8529. PMID 18227746.
  37. Floros, Georgios; Siomos, Konstantinos; Stogiannidou, Ariadni; Giouzepas, Ioannis; Garyfallos, Georgios (2014). "Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders with Internet addiction in a clinical sample: The effect of personality, defense style and psychopathology". Addictive Behaviors. 39 (12): 1839–1845. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.07.031. PMID 25129172.
  38. Shapira, Nathan A.; Goldsmith, Toby D.; Keck, Paul E.; Khosla, Uday M.; McElroy, Susan L. (2000). "Psychiatric features of individuals with problematic internet use". Journal of Affective Disorders. 57 (1–3): 267–272. doi:10.1016/s0165-0327(99)00107-x. PMID 10708842.
  39. Black, D. W.; Belsare, G.; Schlosser, S. (December 1999). "Clinical features, psychiatric comorbidity, and health-related quality of life in persons reporting compulsive computer use behavior". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 60 (12): 839–844. doi:10.4088/jcp.v60n1206. ISSN 0160-6689. PMID 10665630.
  40. Block, Jerald J. (2008-03-01). "Issues for DSM-V: Internet Addiction". American Journal of Psychiatry. 165 (3): 306–307. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 18316427.
  41. Stone, Richard (2009-06-26). "China Reins in Wilder Impulses in Treatment of 'Internet Addiction'". Science. 324 (5935): 1630–1631. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1630S. doi:10.1126/science.324_1630. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19556477.
  42. Hawi, Nazir S. (2012). "Internet addiction among adolescents in Lebanon". Computers in Human Behavior. 28 (3): 1044–1053. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.007.
  43. Bai, Ya-Mei; Lin, Chao-Cheng; Chen, Jen-Yeu (2001-10-01). "Internet Addiction Disorder Among Clients of a Virtual Clinic". Psychiatric Services. 52 (10): 1397. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.52.10.1397. ISSN 1075-2730. PMID 11585966.
  44. "DSM-5". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  45. Campanella, M.; Mucci, F.; Baroni, S.; Nardi, L.; Marazziti, D. (2015). "Prevalence of Internet Addiction: A Pilot Study in a Group of Italian Students" (PDF). Clinical Neuropsychiatry. 4: 90–93.
  46. Lopez-Fernandez, Olatz (2015-09-01). "How Has Internet Addiction Research Evolved Since the Advent of Internet Gaming Disorder? An Overview of Cyberaddictions from a Psychological Perspective" (PDF). Current Addiction Reports. 2 (3): 263–271. doi:10.1007/s40429-015-0067-6. ISSN 2196-2952.
  47. "Gaming disorder". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  48. Weinstein, Aviv; Lejoyeux, Michel (2010). "Internet Addiction or Excessive Internet Use" (PDF). The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 36 (5): 277–283. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1025.8525. doi:10.3109/00952990.2010.491880. PMID 20545603.
  49. S., Young, Kimberly (1998). Caught in the net : how to recognize the signs of Internet addiction--and a winning strategy for recovery. New York: J. Wiley. ISBN 9780471191599. OCLC 38130573.
  50. Young, Kimberly S. (1998-01-01). "Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 1 (3): 237–244. doi:10.1089/cpb.1998.1.237. ISSN 1094-9313.
  51. Yellowlees, Peter M.; Marks, Shayna (2007). "Problematic Internet use or Internet addiction?". Computers in Human Behavior. 23 (3): 1447–1453. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.05.004.
  52. Beard, Keith W.; Wolf, Eve M. (2001-06-01). "Modification in the Proposed Diagnostic Criteria for Internet Addiction". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 4 (3): 377–383. doi:10.1089/109493101300210286. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 11710263.
  53. Cheng, Cecilia; Li, Angel Yee-lam (2014-12-01). "Internet Addiction Prevalence and Quality of (Real) Life: A Meta-Analysis of 31 Nations Across Seven World Regions". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 17 (12): 755–760. doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0317. ISSN 2152-2715. PMC 4267764. PMID 25489876.
  54. Widyanto, Laura; McMurran, Mary (2004). "The Psychometric Properties of the Internet Addiction Test". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 7 (4): 443–450. doi:10.1089/cpb.2004.7.443. PMID 15331031.
  55. Brenner, V. (1997). "Psychology of computer use: XLVII. Parameters of Internet use, abuse and addiction: the first 90 days of the Internet Usage Survey". Psychological Reports. 80 (3): 879–882. doi:10.2466/pr0.1997.80.3.879. PMID 9198388.
  56. Huang, Zheng; Wang, Mo; Qian, Mingyi; Zhong, Jie; Tao, Ran (2007-12-01). "Chinese Internet Addiction Inventory: Developing a Measure of Problematic Internet Use for Chinese College Students". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 10 (6): 805–812. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.9950. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 18085968.
  57. Heo, Jongho; Oh, Juhwan; Subramanian, S. V.; Kim, Yoon; Kawachi, Ichiro (2014-02-05). "Addictive Internet Use among Korean Adolescents: A National Survey". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e87819. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987819H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087819. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3914839. PMID 24505318.
  58. Meerkerk, G.-J.; Van Den Eijnden, R. J. J. M.; Vermulst, A. A.; Garretsen, H. F. L. (2008-12-10). "The Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS): Some Psychometric Properties". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 12 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0181. hdl:2066/77299. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 19072079.
  59. Caplan, Scott E. (2010). "Theory and measurement of generalized problematic Internet use: A two-step approach". Computers in Human Behavior. 26 (5): 1089–1097. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.012.
  60. Clark, Deborah J.; Frith, Karen H. (September 2005). "The Development and Initial Testing of the Internet Consequences Scales (ICONS)". CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing. 23 (5): 285. doi:10.1097/00024665-200509000-00013. ISSN 1538-2931.
  61. Demetrovics, Zsolt; Szeredi, Beatrix; Rózsa, Sándor (2008-05-01). "The three-factor model of Internet addiction: The development of the Problematic Internet Use Questionnaire". Behavior Research Methods. 40 (2): 563–574. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.2.563. ISSN 1554-351X.
  62. Chang, Man Kit; Law, Sally Pui Man (2008). "Factor structure for Young's Internet Addiction Test: A confirmatory study". Computers in Human Behavior. 24 (6): 2597–2619. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.001.
  63. Widyanto, Laura; Griffiths, Mark D.; Brunsden, Vivienne (2010-11-10). "A Psychometric Comparison of the Internet Addiction Test, the Internet-Related Problem Scale, and Self-Diagnosis" (PDF). Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 14 (3): 141–149. doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0151. ISSN 2152-2715. PMID 21067282.
  64. Northrup, Jason C.; Lapierre, Coady; Kirk, Jeffrey; Rae, Cosette (2015-07-28). "The Internet Process Addiction Test: Screening for Addictions to Processes Facilitated by the Internet". Behavioral Sciences. 5 (3): 341–352. doi:10.3390/bs5030341. PMC 4600140. PMID 26226007.
  65. Griffiths, M. (2000). "Internet addiction-time to be taken seriously?". Addiction Research. 8 (5): 413–418. doi:10.3109/16066350009005587.
  66. Soule, L. C.; Shell, L. W.; Kleen, B. A. (2003). "Exploring Internet addiction: Demographic characteristics and stereotypes of heavy Internet users". Journal of Computer Information Systems. 44 (1): 64–73. doi:10.1080/08874417.2003.11647553 (inactive 2019-11-08).
  67. Kuss, D.; Lopez-Fernandez, O. (2016). "Internet-use related addiction: The state of the art of clinical research". European Psychiatry. 33: S303. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.1038.
  68. Young, Kimberly S. (1999-10-01). "The Research and Controversy Surrounding Internet Addiction". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 2 (5): 381–383. doi:10.1089/cpb.1999.2.381. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 19178209.
  69. Petersen, K; Weymann, N; Schelb, Y; Thiel, R; Thomasius, R (2009). "Pathologischer Internetgebrauch – Epidemiologie, Diagnostik, komorbide Störungen und Behandlungsansätze". Fortschritte der Neurologie · Psychiatrie (in German). 77 (5): 263–271. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1109361. ISSN 0720-4299. PMID 19418384.
  70. Young, Kimberly S. (2007-10-01). "Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and Implications". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 10 (5): 671–679. doi:10.1089/cpb.2007.9971. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 17927535.
  71. Huang, Xui-qin; Li, Meng-chen; Tao, Ran (2010-10-01). "Treatment of Internet Addiction". Current Psychiatry Reports. 12 (5): 462–470. doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0147-1. ISSN 1523-3812. PMID 20697848.
  72. Orzack, Maressa Hecht; Voluse, Andrew C.; Wolf, David; Hennen, John (2006-06-01). "An Ongoing Study of Group Treatment for Men Involved in Problematic Internet-Enabled Sexual Behavior". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 9 (3): 348–360. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9.348. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 16780403.
  73. Adams, Margaret (2016). Internet addiction : prevalence, risk factors and health effects. Adams, Margaret E. Hauppauge, New York. ISBN 9781536104363. OCLC 961923990.
  74. Wu, Xiao-Shuang; Zhang, Zhi-Hua; Zhao, Feng; Wang, Wen-Jing; Li, Yi-Feng; Bi, Linda; Qian, Zhen-Zhong; Lu, Shan-Shan; Feng, Fang (2016). "Prevalence of Internet addiction and its association with social support and other related factors among adolescents in China". Journal of Adolescence. 52: 103–111. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.07.012. ISSN 1095-9254. PMID 27544491.
  75. Shek, Daniel T.L.; Yu, Lu (2016). "Adolescent Internet Addiction in Hong Kong: Prevalence, Change, and Correlates". Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 29 (1): S22–S30. doi:10.1016/j.jpag.2015.10.005. hdl:10397/62018. PMID 26461526.
  76. Yang, Shu Ching; Tung, Chieh-Ju (2007). "Comparison of Internet addicts and non-addicts in Taiwanese high school". Computers in Human Behavior. 23 (1): 79–96. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.037.
  77. Kawabe, Kentaro; Horiuchi, Fumie; Ochi, Marina; Oka, Yasunori; Ueno, Shu-ichi (2016-09-01). "Internet addiction: Prevalence and relation with mental states in adolescents". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 70 (9): 405–412. doi:10.1111/pcn.12402. ISSN 1440-1819. PMID 27178110.
  78. Durkee, Tony; Kaess, Michael; Carli, Vladimir; Parzer, Peter; Wasserman, Camilla; Floderus, Birgitta; Apter, Alan; Balazs, Judit; Barzilay, Shira (2012-12-01). "Prevalence of pathological internet use among adolescents in Europe: demographic and social factors". Addiction. 107 (12): 2210–2222. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03946.x. ISSN 1360-0443. PMID 22621402.
  79. Wölfling, K.; Bühler, M.; Leménager, T.; Mörsen, C.; Mann, K. (2009-09-01). "Glücksspiel- und Internetsucht". Der Nervenarzt (in German). 80 (9): 1030–1039. doi:10.1007/s00115-009-2741-1. ISSN 0028-2804. PMID 19697001.
  80. Gómez, Patricia; Rial, Antonio; Braña, Teresa; Golpe, Sandra; Varela, Jesús (2017-02-24). "Screening of Problematic Internet Use Among Spanish Adolescents: Prevalence and Related Variables". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 20 (4): 259–267. doi:10.1089/cyber.2016.0262. ISSN 2152-2715. PMID 28394211.
  81. Bakken, Inger Johanne; Wenzel, Hanne Gro; Götestam, K. Gunnar; Johansson, Agneta; Øren, Anita (2009-04-01). "Internet addiction among Norwegian adults: A stratified probability sample study". Scandinavian Journal of Psychology. 50 (2): 121–127. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00685.x. ISSN 1467-9450. PMID 18826420.
  82. Niemz, Katie; Griffiths, Mark; Banyard, Phil (2005-12-01). "Prevalence of Pathological Internet Use among University Students and Correlations with Self-Esteem, the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), and Disinhibition" (PDF). CyberPsychology & Behavior. 8 (6): 562–570. doi:10.1089/cpb.2005.8.562. ISSN 1094-9313. PMID 16332167.
  83. Aboujaoude, Elias; Koran, Lorrin M.; Gamel, Nona; Large, Michael D.; Serpe, Richard T. (2006). "Potential Markers for Problematic Internet Use: A Telephone Survey of 2,513 Adults". CNS Spectrums. 11 (10): 750–755. doi:10.1017/S1092852900014875. ISSN 1092-8529. PMID 17008818.
  84. Wallis, David (1997-01-06). "Just Click No". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
  85. Kandell, Jonathan J. (1998-01-01). "Internet Addiction on Campus: The Vulnerability of College Students". CyberPsychology & Behavior. 1 (1): 11–17. doi:10.1089/cpb.1998.1.11. ISSN 1094-9313.
  86. "PsycNET". psycnet.apa.org. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
  87. "Internet and Technology Addicts Anonymous". Internet and Technology Addicts Anonymous. Retrieved 2018-10-10.
  88. "R/nosurf - the Beginner's Guide to NoSurf (Essential Reading, Success Stories, Guides, FAQ and more!)". NoSurf Sub-reddit. Retrieved 2018-10-10.
  89. Bax, Trent (2013-08-15). Youth and Internet Addiction in China. Routledge. ISBN 9781135096953.
  90. Phillips, Tom (2017-08-28). "'Electronic heroin': China's boot camps get tough on internet addicts". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  91. "我国首个《网络成瘾临床诊断标准》通过专家论证". www.gov.cn. Retrieved 2018-03-02.
  92. Wang, Amy B. (2017-08-14). "A teen checked into an Internet-addiction camp in China. He was dead two days later". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  93. "China moves to zap online game addiction". Financial Times. 2005-08-23. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  94. Leonard, Tom (2007-11-19). "First boot camp for internet-addicted teenagers". ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  95. "Korea's Internet Addicts". News. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  96. "Horses to the rescue of Korea's Internet-addicted teens". Reuters. 2013. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  97. Smith, Leesa. "Internet-addicted teens are being sent to rehab to "get clean"". www.kidspot.com.au. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  98. Fifield, Anna (2016-01-24). "In South Korea, a rehab camp for Internet-addicted teenagers". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  99. Fackler, Martin (2007-11-18). "In Korea, a Boot Camp Cure for Web Obsession". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-02-27.
  100. "暗访杨永信网瘾戒治中心:杨永信和传销一个样-搜狐健康". health.sohu.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  101. ""戒网专家"电击治网瘾惹争议". zqb.cyol.com. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  102. "一个网戒中心的生态系统". zqb.cyol.com. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  103. "It's the addiction gripping thousands of Chinese teenagers". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  104. CNN, By Deb Krajnak. "China probe of abuse at Web addiction camp - CNN.com". www.cnn.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  105. "我在'网瘾集中营'的生活". zqb.cyol.com. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  106. "南方周末 - 86条规定". www.infzm.com. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  107. Editorial, Reuters. "China bans physical punishment for Internet addicts". IN. Retrieved 2018-02-21.
  108. "南昌豫章书院深陷"暴力门" 学生称"绝望"". jx.ifeng.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  109. Times, Global. "Shock over abusive methods used at Internet addiction center - Global Times". www.globaltimes.cn. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  110. Team, Tencent VFE. "独家专访引爆豫章书院事件当事人:曾被铁棍打 吞牙膏自杀未遂_网罗天下_腾讯视频". v.qq.com (in Chinese). Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  111. "南昌豫章书院学生陆续被接走,警方正调查书院是否涉嫌违法_教育家_澎湃新闻-The Paper". www.thepaper.cn. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  112. Tang, Yi-lang; Jiang, Wei; Ren, Yan-ping; Ma, Xin; Cotes, Robert O.; McDonald, William M. (2012). "Electroconvulsive Therapy in China". The Journal of ECT. 28 (4): 206–212. doi:10.1097/yct.0b013e31825957b1. PMID 22801297.
  113. "杨永信网瘾中心再追踪:女孩唱舞娘也遭电击_科技_腾讯网". tech.qq.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  114. "南方周末 - "电击"可治网瘾?卫生部叫停". www.infzm.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  115. Branigan, Tania (2009-07-14). "China bans electric shock treatment used to 'cure' young internet addicts". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  116. 网易. "杨永信"神话"破灭背后的媒体漩涡_网易新闻". discover.news.163.com. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  117. 网易. "《新闻调查》曝光杨永信电击真相_网易科技". tech.163.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  118. "经济半小时:杨永信网戒中心入账可达8100万_互联网_科技时代_新浪网". tech.sina.com.cn. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  119. "卫生部通知停止电刺激治疗"网瘾"技术临床应用". www.gov.cn. Retrieved 2018-02-19.
  120. Kuo, Lily. "China's cure for teenage internet addiction is worse than the supposed disease". Quartz. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  121. chinanews. "盘点12起被曝光戒网瘾学校事件:9成涉体罚 致7人亡-中新网". www.chinanews.com. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  122. "China 'internet addict' death sparks fury". BBC News. 2017-08-14. Retrieved 2018-02-20.

Further reading

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.